link
THE
THE
BY
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE THIRD
AND
Of Jesus College, Cambridge; the Royal
College of Physicians; the Medico-Chirurgical
Quaeramus optima, nec protinus se offerentibus
gaudeamus;
adhibeatur judicium inventis, dispositio probatis.Quintilian. 
J. Barker,
Printer,
THE TRANSLATOR’S
15, Grafton Street, Bond Street,
April 8, 1820. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
September 10, 1810. 
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
THE
SECT. I.
SECT. II.
SECT. III.
SECT. IV.
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[interleaf]
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[interleaf]
[[i]]
THE
INSTITUTIONS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY.
[[ii]]
[titlePage_recto]
THE
INSTITUTIONS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY
BY
J. FRED.
BLUMENBACH, M.D.
Professor of Medicine in the
University of Göttingen.
TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN OF THE THIRD
AND
LAST EDITION,
AND SUPPLIED
WITH COPIOUS NOTES,
BY
JOHN ELLIOTSON, M.D.
ASSISTANT PHYSICIAN TO ST.
THOMAS’S HOSPITAL;
Of Jesus College, Cambridge; the Royal
College of Physicians; the Medico-Chirurgical
Society; Honorary Member of
the Physical Society of Guy’s Hospital;
and formerly President of the Royal
Medical Society
of Edinburgh.
THIRD EDITION, CONSIDERABLY IMPROVED.
adhibeatur judicium inventis, dispositio probatis.
London:
PRINTED FOR BURGESS AND HILL, MEDICAL BOOKSELLERS,
55, Great Windmill Street, Haymarket;
HODGES AND M’ARTHUR, DUBLIN; AND
ADAM BLACK, EDINBURGH.
1820.
PRINTED FOR BURGESS AND HILL, MEDICAL BOOKSELLERS,
55, Great Windmill Street, Haymarket;
HODGES AND M’ARTHUR, DUBLIN; AND
ADAM BLACK, EDINBURGH.
[titlePage_verso]
J. Barker,
Printer,
4, Crane Court, Fleet Street.
[[v]]
TO
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
PRINCE AUGUSTUS FREDERICK
DUKE OF SUSSEX,
EARL OF INVERNESS,
Baron of Arklow,
KNIGHT OF THE MOST NOBLE ORDER OF THE GARTER,
&c. &c. &c. &c.
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
PRINCE AUGUSTUS FREDERICK
DUKE OF SUSSEX,
EARL OF INVERNESS,
Baron of Arklow,
KNIGHT OF THE MOST NOBLE ORDER OF THE GARTER,
&c. &c. &c. &c.
THE STRENUOUS SUPPORTER OF EVERY THING WHICH CAN
EXALT THE CHARACTER OR AUGMENT THE
HAPPINESS OF MANKIND,
AND
THE FRIEND OF PROFESSOR BLUMENBACH,
THE FOLLOWING PAGES
ARE,
WITH HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS’S PERMISSION,
MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED.
EXALT THE CHARACTER OR AUGMENT THE
HAPPINESS OF MANKIND,
AND
THE FRIEND OF PROFESSOR BLUMENBACH,
THE FOLLOWING PAGES
ARE,
WITH HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS’S PERMISSION,
MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED.
[[vi]]
[[vii]]
THE TRANSLATOR’S
PREFACE.
In expressing the gratification which I must feel
at a third edition of my Work being so soon re-
quired, I have also to express my regret that
peculiar circumstances have compelled me to
leave it so many months out of print.
at a third edition of my Work being so soon re-
quired, I have also to express my regret that
peculiar circumstances have compelled me to
leave it so many months out of print.
The Translation will be found revised, innu-
merable errors of various descriptions corrected,
every accession of physiological knowledge up
to the present moment inserted, several points
fully discussed which before were too briefly
noticed, and consequently the amount of my
Notes very considerably increased.
merable errors of various descriptions corrected,
every accession of physiological knowledge up
to the present moment inserted, several points
fully discussed which before were too briefly
noticed, and consequently the amount of my
Notes very considerably increased.
Many inadvertencies will no doubt still be dis-
covered, and so far from being displeased I shall
be grateful to have them pointed out, as well as
to have my opinions freely examined. For I
should blush to be reluctant in allowing to others
what I always claim myself, – sentire quae velim,
covered, and so far from being displeased I shall
be grateful to have them pointed out, as well as
to have my opinions freely examined. For I
should blush to be reluctant in allowing to others
what I always claim myself, – sentire quae velim,
[viii]
et dicere quae sentiam. Truth is my object,
and,
though I have become a writer, my disposition
is really discere libentius quam dicere.
though I have become a writer, my disposition
is really discere libentius quam dicere.
The lapse of ten years since the last publi-
cation of Professor Blumenbach’s work, no less
than since that of M. Richerand’s, has compelled
me to supply notes of correction as well as of
addition, and will excuse me for differing on
some points from my celebrated and venerable
author, without urging what is universally al-
lowed, – that, when a dwarf gets on the shoul-
ders of a giant, he may see farther than the giant
himself.
cation of Professor Blumenbach’s work, no less
than since that of M. Richerand’s, has compelled
me to supply notes of correction as well as of
addition, and will excuse me for differing on
some points from my celebrated and venerable
author, without urging what is universally al-
lowed, – that, when a dwarf gets on the shoul-
ders of a giant, he may see farther than the giant
himself.
Whatever is peculiar and excellent in M. Ma-
jendie’s Physiological work, has been carefully
transferred, so that my readers will, I trust, pos-
sess not only a full and faithful statement of the
Physiological Science of the present time, but
enjoy the advantage of a sort of triple work by a
German, a Frenchman, and an Englishman.
jendie’s Physiological work, has been carefully
transferred, so that my readers will, I trust, pos-
sess not only a full and faithful statement of the
Physiological Science of the present time, but
enjoy the advantage of a sort of triple work by a
German, a Frenchman, and an Englishman.
April 8, 1820.
[[ix]]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
to
the
LAST EDITION.
Whenever my booksellers have informed me
that a new edition of any of my works was re-
quired, I have always gladly seized the opportu-
nity of correcting inaccuracies arising either from
carelesness or the imperfections of human nature,
and of adding in some places and altering in
others; in short, of sending forth the production
of my abilities in a more finished state.
that a new edition of any of my works was re-
quired, I have always gladly seized the opportu-
nity of correcting inaccuracies arising either from
carelesness or the imperfections of human nature,
and of adding in some places and altering in
others; in short, of sending forth the production
of my abilities in a more finished state.
In preparing this new edition of my Institu-
tions of Physiology for the press, the same
anxious wish has been considerably heightened by
the importance of the subject, and by the appro-
tions of Physiology for the press, the same
anxious wish has been considerably heightened by
the importance of the subject, and by the appro-
[x]
bation evidently bestowed
upon the last edition,
from its translation into our own language, into
Spanish, French, English,
not to mention other proofs of its favourable
reception. I have endeavoured, therefore, to
enrich it not so much with an addition of pages,
as of various matter; to arrange the heads in a
more natural order; and to render the whole as
useful to students as possible.
from its translation into our own language, into
Spanish, French, English,
I am unable to
discover any English translation besides my
own, which was first published in 1815. – J.E.
own, which was first published in 1815. – J.E.
not to mention other proofs of its favourable
reception. I have endeavoured, therefore, to
enrich it not so much with an addition of pages,
as of various matter; to arrange the heads in a
more natural order; and to render the whole as
useful to students as possible.
[[xi]]
THE AUTHOR’S PREFACE
to
the
FIRST EDITION.
The same considerations which led Boerhaave,
and after him Haller, to write their Compendiums
of Physiology, induced the Author to compose
these Institutions.
and after him Haller, to write their Compendiums
of Physiology, induced the Author to compose
these Institutions.
The former says,
“that a teacher succeeds bet-&c.
ter in commenting upon his own thoughts, than
upon a work written by another: – that his doc-
trine will be clearer, and his language generally
animated,”
Pref. to the
Institut. Medic. Leyden. Fourth
edition.
The latter,
“That, although he formerly used
Boerhaave’s work as a text-book, he afterwards
[xii]
lectured upon one written by himself, because
anatomy had been so improved since the time
of Boerhaave, as to have become almost a new
science.”
Pref. to the Prim. lin. Physiol. Gottingen.
First edition.
What Haller said at that period respecting ana-
tomy, will be allowed to apply much more forcibly
at present to physiology, by any one who consi-
ders the most important parts of the science, –
the principal purpose of respiration, animal heat,
digestion, the true nature and use of the bile, the
function of generation, &c.
tomy, will be allowed to apply much more forcibly
at present to physiology, by any one who consi-
ders the most important parts of the science, –
the principal purpose of respiration, animal heat,
digestion, the true nature and use of the bile, the
function of generation, &c.
More, therefore, must be ascribed to the age
than to the author, if in these Institutions, after
so many modern physiological discoveries, he
delivers doctrines more sound and natural than it
was in the power of his most meritorious pre-
decessors to deliver.
than to the author, if in these Institutions, after
so many modern physiological discoveries, he
delivers doctrines more sound and natural than it
was in the power of his most meritorious pre-
decessors to deliver.
Whatever he can claim as his own, whether
really new or only presented in a new view,
really new or only presented in a new view,
[xiii]
will be
easily discovered by the learned and im-
partial reader; especially from the notes, in which
he has treated some of these subjects rather more
minutely than, in the text, was compatible with
the conciseness of his plan.
partial reader; especially from the notes, in which
he has treated some of these subjects rather more
minutely than, in the text, was compatible with
the conciseness of his plan.
He has been at great pains in arranging the
subjects, so that the sections might succeed natu-
rally and easily, and arise, as it were, one out of
another.
subjects, so that the sections might succeed natu-
rally and easily, and arise, as it were, one out of
another.
He has not quoted a dry farrago of books, but
a select number, in doing which, he has wished
both to point out to students some excellent au-
thors not commonly known, especially those who
have professedly treated on particular branches of
the subject, and to open, besides medical sources
of information, others not yet applied, he con-
ceives, to Physiology as they deserve.
a select number, in doing which, he has wished
both to point out to students some excellent au-
thors not commonly known, especially those who
have professedly treated on particular branches of
the subject, and to open, besides medical sources
of information, others not yet applied, he con-
ceives, to Physiology as they deserve.
His grand object has been to deliver, in a faith-
ful, concise, and intelligible manner, the princi-
ples of a science inferior in beauty, importance,
and utility, to no part of medicine, if the words
ful, concise, and intelligible manner, the princi-
ples of a science inferior in beauty, importance,
and utility, to no part of medicine, if the words
[xiv]
prefixed
by the immortal Galen to his Methodus
Medendi, are true, as they most certainly are: –
Medendi, are true, as they most certainly are: –
“The magnitude of a disease is in proportion to
its deviation from the healthy state; and the
extent of this deviation can be ascertained by him
only who is perfectly acquainted with the healthy
state.”
[[xv]]
CONTENTS.
- sect.page
- Of the Living Human Body in general 1
- Of the Fluids in general, and particularly of
the
Blood 3 - Of the Solids in general, and of the Mucous Web
in particular 13 - Of the Vital Powers in general, and particularly
of Contractility 17 - Of the Mental Faculties 30
- Of Health and Human Nature 35
- Of the Motion of the Blood 60
- Of Respiration and its principal Use 84
- Of the Voice and Speech 99
- Of Animal Heat 109
- Of Perspiration 118
- Of the Functions of the Nervous System in general 130
- Of the external Senses in general, and of Touch
in
particular 152 - Of Taste 155
- Of Smell 158
- Of Hearing 163
- Of Sight 168
- Of the Voluntary Motions 182
- Of Muscular Motion 187
- Of Sleep 198
- Of Food and Hunger 205
- Of Mastication and Deglutition 219
- Of Digestion 225
- Of the Pancreatic Juice 233
- Of the Bile 235
- Of the Function of the Spleen 243
[xvi]
- Of the Function of the Omentum 248
- Of the Function of the Intestines 251
- Of the Function of the Absorbent Vessels 261
- Of Sanguification 274
- Of Nutrition 278
- Of the Secretions in general 285
- Of the Fat 294
- Of the Urine 298
- Of the general Differences of the Sexes 304
- Of the Genital Function in Man 314
- Of the Genital Function of Woman in general 338
- Of the Menstrua 347
- Of Conception and Pregnancy 351
- Of the Nisus Formativus 374
- Of Labour and its Sequelae 382
- Of the Milk 387
- Of the Differences in the System before
and
after Birth 396 - Of the Growth, Stationary Condition, and De-
crease of the Human System 404 - The translator’s notes are each annexed to the section to
which its subject respectively belongs. - The note on the characteristics and varieties of mankind, being
an independent addition, is placed last and begins at p. 418
CORRIGENDA.
| Page | 34, | last line, | for E read F. |
| Page | 49, | last line, | for ? mark ! |
| 218, | for Ottomans read Ottomacs. | ||
| ––– | last line, | for it read earth. |
[1]
THE
INSTITUTIONS
OF
PHYSIOLOGY.
SECT. I.
OF THE LIVING HUMAN BODY IN GENERAL.
1. In the living human body, regarded as a
peculiar
organisation, there are three objects of consideration.
organisation, there are three objects of consideration.
Thus, long ago, the author of the book generally
included among the
writings of Hippocrates, Epidemic. VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said,
This celebrated passage gave origin to the excellent work of Abr. Kaau Boer-
haave, entitled,
LB. 1745. 8vo.
writings of Hippocrates, Epidemic. VI. Sect. 8. § 19. said,
“Those things
which contain, are contained, or moved in us with force, are to be considered.”
This celebrated passage gave origin to the excellent work of Abr. Kaau Boer-
haave, entitled,
“Impetum faciens dictum Hippocrati per corpus consentiens.”
LB. 1745. 8vo.
The materials of its subsistence, afforded by
the
fluids;
fluids;
The structure of the solids, containing the fluids;
Lastly, and principally, the vital powers, by
which
the solids are enabled to receive the influence of the
the solids are enabled to receive the influence of the
[2]
fluids – to propel the fluids –
and perform various other
motions; and which, as they, in a certain sense, con-
stitute the essence of the living machine in general, so
also are of very different orders – some being common
to animals and vegetables – some peculiar to animals
and intimately connected with the mental faculties.
motions; and which, as they, in a certain sense, con-
stitute the essence of the living machine in general, so
also are of very different orders – some being common
to animals and vegetables – some peculiar to animals
and intimately connected with the mental faculties.
2. But these three, although really distinct, and
therefore distinctly considered by us, are so closely
related in the living system, (the phenomena, conditions,
and laws of whose functions, in the healthy state, are
the object of physiology) that no one can be contem-
plated but in its relation to the rest.
therefore distinctly considered by us, are so closely
related in the living system, (the phenomena, conditions,
and laws of whose functions, in the healthy state, are
the object of physiology) that no one can be contem-
plated but in its relation to the rest.
For the materials of the body, although originally
fluid, are naturally disposed to become solid; and, on
the other hand, the solids, besides having been formed
from the fluids, abound, however dry they may appear,
in various kinds of fluid constituents, both liquid and
aëriform: lastly, it may probably be affirmed, that no
fibril, during life, is destitute of vital power.
fluid, are naturally disposed to become solid; and, on
the other hand, the solids, besides having been formed
from the fluids, abound, however dry they may appear,
in various kinds of fluid constituents, both liquid and
aëriform: lastly, it may probably be affirmed, that no
fibril, during life, is destitute of vital power.
3. We shall now examine each of these separately;
and first, the materials afforded by the fluids, which
form both the fundamental and most considerable por-
tion of our bodies.
and first, the materials afforded by the fluids, which
form both the fundamental and most considerable por-
tion of our bodies.
The great preponderance of the fluids is strikingly exemplified in
an entire,
but perfectly dry, mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anatomical museum by the illus-
trious Banks, and, though all its viscera and muscles are preserved, does not
exceed 7 1/2 lbs. in weight.
but perfectly dry, mummy of an adult Guanche, one of the original inhabitants
of the island of Teneriffe. It was sent to my anatomical museum by the illus-
trious Banks, and, though all its viscera and muscles are preserved, does not
exceed 7 1/2 lbs. in weight.
[3]
SECT. II.
OF THE FLUIDS IN GENERAL, AND
PARTICULARLY
OF THE BLOOD.
4. The fluids of the body may be conveniently re-
duced to three classes.
duced to three classes.
A. The crude; viz. the chyle, contained in the
primae
viae and destined to become blood; and matters ab-
sorbed on the surface and destined to be conveyed to
the chyle.
viae and destined to become blood; and matters ab-
sorbed on the surface and destined to be conveyed to
the chyle.
B. The blood itself.
C. Those secreted from the blood, whether inert
and
excrementitious, like the urine; or intended for certain
purposes in the economy: the latter may be perma-
nently liquid, as the bile; or disposed to solidity, as
the osseous and other plastic juices.
excrementitious, like the urine; or intended for certain
purposes in the economy: the latter may be perma-
nently liquid, as the bile; or disposed to solidity, as
the osseous and other plastic juices.
5. Of the first and third of these classes we shall
hereafter speak, in treating of chylification, secretion,
and the other functions to which each fluid appertains.
At present our attention shall be devoted to the blood
the chief and primary fluid – the vehicle of those suc-
cessions of oxygenous and carbonaceous particles,
which cease with life only – the nourisher of the frame
– the source of almost every fluid – that into which the
crude fluid is converted and from which all the secre-
tions are derived – and which, with the exception of
some exsangueous parts, as the epidermis, the arach-
noid, the amnion, &c. the vitreous substance of the
hereafter speak, in treating of chylification, secretion,
and the other functions to which each fluid appertains.
At present our attention shall be devoted to the blood
J. Hunter, Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, &c.
London. 1794. 4to.
the chief and primary fluid – the vehicle of those suc-
cessions of oxygenous and carbonaceous particles,
which cease with life only – the nourisher of the frame
– the source of almost every fluid – that into which the
crude fluid is converted and from which all the secre-
tions are derived – and which, with the exception of
some exsangueous parts, as the epidermis, the arach-
noid, the amnion, &c. the vitreous substance of the
[4]
teeth, the body of the
crystalline lens, &c. is univer-
sally diffused through the system, in various propor-
tions, indeed, according to the various natures of the
similar parts, to use the language of the ancients,
v.c. abundantly in the muscles and glands, sparingly
in the tendons and cartilages.
sally diffused through the system, in various propor-
tions, indeed, according to the various natures of the
similar parts, to use the language of the ancients,
They divided the body
into similar or homogeneous parts, as the
bones,
cartilages, muscles, tendons, &c.; and dissimilar, composed of the similar, as
the head, trunk, limbs, &c.
cartilages, muscles, tendons, &c.; and dissimilar, composed of the similar, as
the head, trunk, limbs, &c.
v.c. abundantly in the muscles and glands, sparingly
in the tendons and cartilages.
Physiologists
have variously estimated the quantity of blood in a well
formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Abildgaard, make it scarcely more than
8 pounds; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Hamberger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The former
are evidently nearer the truth.
formed adult. Allen, Mullen, and Abildgaard, make it scarcely more than
8 pounds; Borelli, 20; Haller, 30; Hamberger, 80; J. Keil, 100. The former
are evidently nearer the truth.
6. The blood is a fluid sui generis, of a well
known
colour and peculiar odour; its taste is rather saline
and nauseous; its temperature about 96° of Fahrenheit;
it is glutinous to the touch; its specific gravity, though
different in different individuals, may be generally esti-
mated as 1050, water being 1000; when fresh drawn,
and received into a vessel, it exhibits the following
appearances.
colour and peculiar odour; its taste is rather saline
and nauseous; its temperature about 96° of Fahrenheit;
it is glutinous to the touch; its specific gravity, though
different in different individuals, may be generally esti-
mated as 1050, water being 1000; when fresh drawn,
and received into a vessel, it exhibits the following
appearances.
J. Martin Butt, De spontanea sanguinis separatione. Edinb. 1760.
8vo.
reprinted in Sandifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J.H.L. Bader, Experimenta circa
sanguinem. Argent. 1788. 8vo.
reprinted in Sandifort’s Thesaurus, vol. ii. J.H.L. Bader, Experimenta circa
sanguinem. Argent. 1788. 8vo.
7. At first, especially while still warm, it emits a
vapour which has of late been denominated an animal
gas and shewn to consist of hydrogen and carbon, sus-
pended by caloric.
vapour which has of late been denominated an animal
gas and shewn to consist of hydrogen and carbon, sus-
pended by caloric.
The elements of aëriform fluids of course
exist in the blood; that they are
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed,
was clearly shewn in some experiments made by me during the year 1812, upon
other mammalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air infused into the
jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and if the quantity
was rather increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these experiments in
the Medic. Biblioth. vol. i. 177. The illustrious Bichat observed the same effects
in his experiments. Journal de Santé, &c. de Bourdeaux. t. ii. p. 61.
not, however, in the elastic state, as so many physiologists formerly believed,
was clearly shewn in some experiments made by me during the year 1812, upon
other mammalia. I found that a small portion of the purest air infused into the
jugular vein, excited palpitations, drowsiness, convulsions; and if the quantity
was rather increased, even death ensued. I have detailed these experiments in
the Medic. Biblioth. vol. i. 177. The illustrious Bichat observed the same effects
in his experiments. Journal de Santé, &c. de Bourdeaux. t. ii. p. 61.
[5]
resembling dew, of a watery nature, but affording a
nidorous smell, which is most remarkable in the blood
of carnivorous animals, peculiar and truly animal.
Much of this watery liquor still remains united with
the other parts of the blood. (B)
nidorous smell, which is most remarkable in the blood
of carnivorous animals, peculiar and truly animal.
Much of this watery liquor still remains united with
the other parts of the blood. (B)
8. In the mean time the blood, when its temperature
has fallen to about 78°, begins to separate into two
portions. A coagulum is formed, from the surface of
which exudes, as it were, a fluid of a yellowish slightly
red colour, denominated serum: the more abundantly
this exudes, the greater is the contraction of the glu-
tinous coagulum, which has received the appellations
of crassamentum; and, from some resemblance to the
liver in colour and texture, of hepar sanguineum; of
placenta; and, from the circumstance of its being sur-
rounded by the serum, of insula. (C)
has fallen to about 78°, begins to separate into two
portions. A coagulum is formed, from the surface of
which exudes, as it were, a fluid of a yellowish slightly
red colour, denominated serum: the more abundantly
this exudes, the greater is the contraction of the glu-
tinous coagulum, which has received the appellations
of crassamentum; and, from some resemblance to the
liver in colour and texture, of hepar sanguineum; of
placenta; and, from the circumstance of its being sur-
rounded by the serum, of insula. (C)
9. The crassamentum may, by agitation or repeated
ablution, be easily separated into two constituent
parts – the cruor, which imparted to the blood its
purple colour, and the lymph, which on washing is for-
saken by the cruor, and called, from its greater solidity,
the basis of the crassamentum. The stronger affinity
of the cruor for the lymph than for the serum, is proved
by the necessity of violence to effect their disunion.
By the removal of the cruor the lymph becomes gra-
dually paler, till it is at length merely a white tenacious
coagulum. (D)
ablution, be easily separated into two constituent
parts – the cruor, which imparted to the blood its
purple colour, and the lymph, which on washing is for-
saken by the cruor, and called, from its greater solidity,
the basis of the crassamentum. The stronger affinity
of the cruor for the lymph than for the serum, is proved
by the necessity of violence to effect their disunion.
By the removal of the cruor the lymph becomes gra-
dually paler, till it is at length merely a white tenacious
coagulum. (D)
10. Besides the watery fluid first mentioned, these
are the three constituents of the blood, viz. the serum,
the cruor, and the lymph: we shall presently treat of
each more particularly. These, however, while recent,
and in possession of their native heat, are intimately
are the three constituents of the blood, viz. the serum,
the cruor, and the lymph: we shall presently treat of
each more particularly. These, however, while recent,
and in possession of their native heat, are intimately
[6]
mixed, and form an equable,
homogeneous fluid. Their
relative proportion is astonishingly diversified, accord-
ing to age, temperament, diet, and similar circum-
stances which constitute the peculiar health of each
individual.
relative proportion is astonishingly diversified, accord-
ing to age, temperament, diet, and similar circum-
stances which constitute the peculiar health of each
individual.
11. The serum is a peculiar fluid, the chief cause
of
the viscidity of the blood, and easily separable by art
into different constituent principles. If subjected to a
temperature of 150° Fahr. a portion is converted into a
white scissile substance, resembling boiled albumen:
the rest exhibits, besides the watery fluid so often men-
tioned, a turbid fluid of a gelatinous, or rather mucous,
nature, which on cooling appears a tremulous coagu-
lum. The serum is remarkable for the quantity of soda
(mineral alkali) which it contains. (E)
the viscidity of the blood, and easily separable by art
into different constituent principles. If subjected to a
temperature of 150° Fahr. a portion is converted into a
white scissile substance, resembling boiled albumen:
the rest exhibits, besides the watery fluid so often men-
tioned, a turbid fluid of a gelatinous, or rather mucous,
J. Bostock, Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, published by the
Medical
and Chirurgical Society of London. vol. i. 1809. p. 46.
and Chirurgical Society of London. vol. i. 1809. p. 46.
nature, which on cooling appears a tremulous coagu-
lum. The serum is remarkable for the quantity of soda
(mineral alkali) which it contains. (E)
12. The cruor has many peculiarities, in regard
to
both the colour and the figure of its particles. It con-
sists of globules, which in recent blood are of a constant
form and size, and said to be 1/3300 of an inch in dia-
meter. Their form, indeed, has been a subject of dis-
pute; but I am disposed to consider it as much more
simple than some writers of great celebrity have ima-
gined. I have always found it globular, and could
never discover the lenticular shape which some have
asserted that they remarked.
both the colour and the figure of its particles. It con-
sists of globules, which in recent blood are of a constant
form and size, and said to be 1/3300 of an inch in dia-
meter. Their form, indeed, has been a subject of dis-
pute; but I am disposed to consider it as much more
simple than some writers of great celebrity have ima-
gined. I have always found it globular, and could
never discover the lenticular shape which some have
asserted that they remarked.
It has been likewise advanced, that the globules
change their form, while passing through a vessel of
very small capacity – that, from being spherical, they
become oval; and, when they have emerged into a
change their form, while passing through a vessel of
very small capacity – that, from being spherical, they
become oval; and, when they have emerged into a
[7]
vessel of larger area,
that they again resume their glo-
bular shape.
deny it, I cannot conceive to occur during the tranquil
and healthy motion of the blood, but should refer it to
a spasm of the small vessels.
bular shape.
G. Chr. Reichel, De sanguine
ejusque motu Experimenta. Lips. 1767. 4to.
p. 27. fig. 3. g.g.
p. 27. fig. 3. g.g.
deny it, I cannot conceive to occur during the tranquil
and healthy motion of the blood, but should refer it to
a spasm of the small vessels.
Their globular figure can be seen in a living animal
only, or in blood very recently drawn: for they are
soon unobservable, becoming a shapeless mass which
resembles serum in every circumstance excepting
colour.
only, or in blood very recently drawn: for they are
soon unobservable, becoming a shapeless mass which
resembles serum in every circumstance excepting
colour.
13. Their colour is red, and from it is derived
the
colour of the blood. In intensity it varies infinitely;
paler in animals which have been poorly nourished or
have suffered from haemorrhage; more florid, when
oxygenised
phrase) by exposure either to atmospheric air, or, more
especially, to oxygen; darker when carbonised, (in
common language, rendered venous) by exposure to
carbonic acid gas, or to hydrogen.
colour of the blood. In intensity it varies infinitely;
paler in animals which have been poorly nourished or
have suffered from haemorrhage; more florid, when
oxygenised
Unwilling as I am
to follow the example of those, who, especially in modern
times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the words
oxygenised and carbonised may be advantageously substituted for arterial and
venous: because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called veins, v.c.
the pulmonary and umbilical; while, on the other hand, venous blood is con-
tained in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same manner, the veins
of the chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial, the arteries, venous,
blood; – to use these expressions in their common acceptation.
times, delight in changing scientific terms, I cannot but think that the words
oxygenised and carbonised may be advantageously substituted for arterial and
venous: because arterial blood is contained in some vessels called veins, v.c.
the pulmonary and umbilical; while, on the other hand, venous blood is con-
tained in the pulmonary and umbilical arteries. In the same manner, the veins
of the chorion in the incubated egg contain arterial, the arteries, venous,
blood; – to use these expressions in their common acceptation.
phrase) by exposure either to atmospheric air, or, more
especially, to oxygen; darker when carbonised, (in
common language, rendered venous) by exposure to
carbonic acid gas, or to hydrogen.
Consult among others whom we shall recommend in
the chapter on respi-
ration, Chr. Girtanner, Journal de Physique. August. 1790.
ration, Chr. Girtanner, Journal de Physique. August. 1790.
Fourcroy, Annales de Chimie. t. vij.
Hassenfratz, ibidem, t. ix.
J. Ferd.h. Autenreith, Experimenta et observata de
sanguine praesertim
venoso. Stuttg. 1792. 4to.
venoso. Stuttg. 1792. 4to.
[8]
most
probably to be ascribed to the oxide of iron,
quantity of which, however, is so minute, that it has
been most variously estimated. (F)
By Will. C. Wells, Philos. Trans. 1797, the
redness of the blood in general
is rather ascribed to the peculiar structure of the globules, and its various
degrees and changes simply to the reflection of light.
is rather ascribed to the peculiar structure of the globules, and its various
degrees and changes simply to the reflection of light.
quantity of which, however, is so minute, that it has
been most variously estimated. (F)
14. The last constituent principle of the blood to be
noticed, is the plastic lymph, formerly confounded with
the serum. This has been called the basis of the cras-
samentum, the glutinous part, the fibre or fibrous matter
of the blood, and, like the caseous part of milk and the
gluten of vegetables, been discovered by late analysis
to abound in carbon and azote. (G)
noticed, is the plastic lymph, formerly confounded with
the serum. This has been called the basis of the cras-
samentum, the glutinous part, the fibre or fibrous matter
of the blood, and, like the caseous part of milk and the
gluten of vegetables, been discovered by late analysis
to abound in carbon and azote. (G)
15. It is properly denominated plastic, because it
affords the chief materials from which the similar
parts, especially the muscles, are immediately pro-
duced; nourishes the body throughout life; repairs
wounds and fractures in an extraordinary manner; fills
up the areae of large blood vessels when divided; and
forms those concretions which accompany inflamma-
tions,
in the recently impregnated uterus for the attachment
of the ovum.
affords the chief materials from which the similar
parts, especially the muscles, are immediately pro-
duced; nourishes the body throughout life; repairs
wounds and fractures in an extraordinary manner; fills
up the areae of large blood vessels when divided; and
forms those concretions which accompany inflamma-
tions,
Such are
those spurious membranes found exuded on the
surface of in-
flamed viscera, v.c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura
after peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchiae after croup:
such also are those artificial ones called, after their inventor, Ruyschian, and
made by stirring fresh blood about with a stick.
flamed viscera, v.c. those cellular connections between the lungs and pleura
after peripneumony, and the tubes observed within the bronchiae after croup:
such also are those artificial ones called, after their inventor, Ruyschian, and
made by stirring fresh blood about with a stick.
in the recently impregnated uterus for the attachment
of the ovum.
16. Thus much have we said, respecting the consti-
tuent parts and nature of the blood, the most important
fluid of the animal machine, – a fluid, which excites the
heart to contraction; which distributes oxygen to every
part, and conveys the carbon to the excretory vessels,
giving rise, by this change, to animal heat; which sup-
tuent parts and nature of the blood, the most important
fluid of the animal machine, – a fluid, which excites the
heart to contraction; which distributes oxygen to every
part, and conveys the carbon to the excretory vessels,
giving rise, by this change, to animal heat; which sup-
[9]
plies the materials of the solids
originally, and after-
wards their nourishment; and from which all the other
fluids, with the exception of the crude (4.), are secreted
and derived. Of the multifarious importance of the
blood, we shall speak particularly hereafter.
wards their nourishment; and from which all the other
fluids, with the exception of the crude (4.), are secreted
and derived. Of the multifarious importance of the
blood, we shall speak particularly hereafter.
NOTES.
(A) The blood is now known not to absorb any oxygen during
ordinary respiration. See note (C.) Sect. viii.
ordinary respiration. See note (C.) Sect. viii.
(B) When blood, venous or arterial, is placed in the vacuum
of an air-pump
quantity of carbonic acid gas: in a paper lately read to the Royal
Society, but not yet printed, the quantity is said to be much
greater after a meal, and much less if the blood is buffy.
of an air-pump
Annales de Chimie. xiii.
Phil. Trans. 1818. p. 181.
quantity of carbonic acid gas: in a paper lately read to the Royal
Society, but not yet printed, the quantity is said to be much
greater after a meal, and much less if the blood is buffy.
(C) Blood coagulates when cut off from communication with
the mass by escape from its vessels, whether warm or cold, in the
air or in vacuo, diluted or undiluted, at rest or in motion; whereas
within the vessels, rest, which causes a cessation of intercourse
between the motionless portion and the general mass, is in many
cases sufficient to effect its coagulation. After death from a blow
on the stomach, lightning, arsenic, hard running, &c. it does not
coagulate.
the mass by escape from its vessels, whether warm or cold, in the
air or in vacuo, diluted or undiluted, at rest or in motion; whereas
within the vessels, rest, which causes a cessation of intercourse
between the motionless portion and the general mass, is in many
cases sufficient to effect its coagulation. After death from a blow
on the stomach, lightning, arsenic, hard running, &c. it does not
coagulate.
Hunter on the Blood,
&c.
(D) To suppose any affinity of the red particles for either the
lymph or the serum is erroneous. Leeuwenhoek and Hartsoeker
long since proved that serum merely suspends them, for if, when
separated, they are triturated in some serum, part of them is
taken up and the serum assumes a red colour; but if the fluid is
allowed to settle in a cylindrical glass, they slowly precipitate
themselves to the bottom, and the serum above becomes clear,
as before. When blood is drawn, the serum easily separates on
the coagulation of the lymph. But the lymph coagulates before
lymph or the serum is erroneous. Leeuwenhoek and Hartsoeker
long since proved that serum merely suspends them, for if, when
separated, they are triturated in some serum, part of them is
taken up and the serum assumes a red colour; but if the fluid is
allowed to settle in a cylindrical glass, they slowly precipitate
themselves to the bottom, and the serum above becomes clear,
as before. When blood is drawn, the serum easily separates on
the coagulation of the lymph. But the lymph coagulates before
[10]
the colouring
particles have time to fall to the bottom, and en-
tangling them acquires a red colour, forming the crassamentum:
if, however, the lymph coagulate slowly, as in the phlogistic
diathesis, the greater specific gravity of the cruor detaches it very
considerably from the lymph, which remains colourless above,
constituting what is called the inflammatory coat, crust, or buff.
Berzelius even believes the lymph to be in a state of solution in
the serum, while the cruor is simply suspended in this solution;
but the separation of the serum in dropsy, vesication, &c. led
Mr. Hunter to a different conclusion.
tangling them acquires a red colour, forming the crassamentum:
if, however, the lymph coagulate slowly, as in the phlogistic
diathesis, the greater specific gravity of the cruor detaches it very
considerably from the lymph, which remains colourless above,
constituting what is called the inflammatory coat, crust, or buff.
In this
state the albumen of the serum is also affected, for it does not
co-
agulate by heat as usual, and the whole mass of blood is thinner.
agulate by heat as usual, and the whole mass of blood is thinner.
Berzelius even believes the lymph to be in a state of solution in
the serum, while the cruor is simply suspended in this solution;
but the separation of the serum in dropsy, vesication, &c. led
Mr. Hunter to a different conclusion.
View of the present State and Progress of Animal Chemistry
by Jöns Jacob
Berzelius, M.D. &c. Translated by Dr. Brunnmark. 1813. p. 23. Hunter,
l.c. p. 18.
Berzelius, M.D. &c. Translated by Dr. Brunnmark. 1813. p. 23. Hunter,
l.c. p. 18.
(E) The coagulable part of serum is albumen; that which
remains fluid is called serosity, – a name given it by Cullen, and
contains no gelatine as the French chemists asserted, but an ani-
mal matter different from both gelatine and albumen, with a mi-
nute portion of albumen and fibrine, and affords a little free soda,
muriate, lactate,
with 905/1000 of water.
serum does not coagulate by heat.
remains fluid is called serosity, – a name given it by Cullen, and
contains no gelatine as the French chemists asserted, but an ani-
mal matter different from both gelatine and albumen, with a mi-
nute portion of albumen and fibrine, and affords a little free soda,
muriate, lactate,
Berzelius discovers
lactic acid free or combined in all animal fluids. It
was first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of
acetous acid with animal matter.
was first noticed by Scheele, but is generally regarded as a combination of
acetous acid with animal matter.
with 905/1000 of water.
See Dr. Bostock’s papers in the first,
second, and fourth volumes of The
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius’s in the third.
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, and Berzelius’s in the third.
serum does not coagulate by heat.
(F) When venous blood acquires a florid colour by
exposure to
oxygen or atmospheric air, (and it does so even when covered by
a bladder) carbonic acid gas is formed, and an equal quantity of
oxygen gas disappears. If exposed to nitrous oxide, it becomes
of a brighter purple, and much of the gas is absorbed: carbonic
acid gas renders it darker and is a little absorbed, while azote
occasions no change. The dark colour produced in arterial blood
by carbonic acid or azotic gas takes place if blood is placed in
oxygen or atmospheric air, (and it does so even when covered by
a bladder) carbonic acid gas is formed, and an equal quantity of
oxygen gas disappears. If exposed to nitrous oxide, it becomes
of a brighter purple, and much of the gas is absorbed: carbonic
acid gas renders it darker and is a little absorbed, while azote
occasions no change. The dark colour produced in arterial blood
by carbonic acid or azotic gas takes place if blood is placed in
[11]
vacuo, though less rapidly
and deeply than if exposed to hydrogen
gas. Arterial blood left in contact with oxygen gradually acquires
the same dark colour, and no oxygen will afterwards render it
scarlet. Berzelius finds the colouring particles only concerned in
these changes, and, after all, no difference of composition can be
detected between scarlet and purple blood.
gas. Arterial blood left in contact with oxygen gradually acquires
the same dark colour, and no oxygen will afterwards render it
scarlet. Berzelius finds the colouring particles only concerned in
these changes, and, after all, no difference of composition can be
detected between scarlet and purple blood.
It has been generally supposed that iron exists in the red par-
ticles of the blood as a subphosphate. Berzelius informs us that
serum, although able to dissolve a small portion of the oxides,
not indeed of the phosphates, of iron, does not acquire a red
colour by their addition, and that he has never discovered iron nor
lime in the entire blood, although both are so abundant in its
ashes. He concludes that the blood contains the elements of
phosphate of iron and of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and also
of phosphate of magnesia, united in a manner different from their
combination in the salts.
ticles of the blood as a subphosphate. Berzelius informs us that
serum, although able to dissolve a small portion of the oxides,
not indeed of the phosphates, of iron, does not acquire a red
colour by their addition, and that he has never discovered iron nor
lime in the entire blood, although both are so abundant in its
ashes. He concludes that the blood contains the elements of
phosphate of iron and of lime, and of carbonate of lime, and also
of phosphate of magnesia, united in a manner different from their
combination in the salts.
Mr. Bauer, whose microscopic skill is effecting so much for
anatomy and physiology, finds that the globules consist of a
colourless nucleus and an enveloping coloured portion,
Young first discovered.
diameter, and the whole globule nearly one-fourth larger. In the
unpublished paper above quoted, it is further stated that Mr. Bauer
has discovered a third set of smaller colourless globules in the
blood, 1/2800 of an inch in diameter. They appear to belong to
the fibrine, and Sir Everard Home accordingly denominates them
lymph globules. Colourless globules gradually form also in se-
rum.
anatomy and physiology, finds that the globules consist of a
colourless nucleus and an enveloping coloured portion,
Phil. Trans. 1818. p. 187.
Young first discovered.
Medical Literature. p. 545.
diameter, and the whole globule nearly one-fourth larger. In the
unpublished paper above quoted, it is further stated that Mr. Bauer
has discovered a third set of smaller colourless globules in the
blood, 1/2800 of an inch in diameter. They appear to belong to
the fibrine, and Sir Everard Home accordingly denominates them
lymph globules. Colourless globules gradually form also in se-
rum.
Phil. Trans. 1819. p. 2, sq.
(G) The fibrine, albumen, and colouring matter, afford, on de-
composition, the same saline and gaseous products. Berzelius
views them all three as modifications of the same substance.
Albumen contains a greater proportion of oxygen than fibrine,
and has sulphur for a constituent part, which, however, cannot be
detected while the albumen is entire, any more than the iron while
composition, the same saline and gaseous products. Berzelius
views them all three as modifications of the same substance.
Albumen contains a greater proportion of oxygen than fibrine,
and has sulphur for a constituent part, which, however, cannot be
detected while the albumen is entire, any more than the iron while
[12]
the
cruor is entire. The chief differences between the colouring
matter and fibrine are, colour, the spontaneous coagulation of
fibrine at all temperatures while the colouring matter may be
dried without losing its solubility in water and becomes insoluble
only at a certain temperature, and the peculiarity in the latter of
not diminishing in volume like fibrine during exsiccation. Albu-
men is intermediate between the two, and its only character of
distinction from fibrine is that it does not coagulate spontaneously,
but requires a high temperature. The brain and crystalline lens are
a sort of albumen j the epidermis, nails, hair, horn, cartilage, are
nearly composed of it; of bone and muscle it is an essential part.
Fibrine exists in muscles only, besides the blood, and is indeed their
chief constituent, giving them form and rendering them fibrous.
Gelatine, or rather what becomes so by the agency of boiling water,
contains somewhat less carbon and more hydrogen than albumen,
and although not obtained from blood, is an important part of our
frame: the cutis, serous membranes, and tendons, are a species
of it, it forms the chief part of cellular membrane, and is an
essential constituent of bones, muscles, ligaments, hair, &c. The
composition of the substance of the viscera is not well known.
matter and fibrine are, colour, the spontaneous coagulation of
fibrine at all temperatures while the colouring matter may be
dried without losing its solubility in water and becomes insoluble
only at a certain temperature, and the peculiarity in the latter of
not diminishing in volume like fibrine during exsiccation. Albu-
men is intermediate between the two, and its only character of
distinction from fibrine is that it does not coagulate spontaneously,
but requires a high temperature. The brain and crystalline lens are
a sort of albumen j the epidermis, nails, hair, horn, cartilage, are
nearly composed of it; of bone and muscle it is an essential part.
Fibrine exists in muscles only, besides the blood, and is indeed their
chief constituent, giving them form and rendering them fibrous.
Gelatine, or rather what becomes so by the agency of boiling water,
contains somewhat less carbon and more hydrogen than albumen,
and although not obtained from blood, is an important part of our
frame: the cutis, serous membranes, and tendons, are a species
of it, it forms the chief part of cellular membrane, and is an
essential constituent of bones, muscles, ligaments, hair, &c. The
composition of the substance of the viscera is not well known.
The blood of brutes has the same general character as our own,
but Berzelius finds a larger proportion of nitrogen in that of the
bull, and by analogy I should think there must be a peculiarity in
the blood of every species. Muscles look pretty much alike in
various animals, yet our dishes disclose the greatest diversities.
Transfusion, or pouring the blood of one system into another, has
been practised for a century and a half, and satisfies us that the
blood, whether arterial or venous, of one individual, agrees well
enough with another of the same species; but some late experi-
ments of Dr. Leacock,
it unlikely, contrary to the opinion of former experimentalists,
that the blood of one species suits the system of another. Dr.
Young found the large outer globules of the skate to be oval.
but Berzelius finds a larger proportion of nitrogen in that of the
bull, and by analogy I should think there must be a peculiarity in
the blood of every species. Muscles look pretty much alike in
various animals, yet our dishes disclose the greatest diversities.
Transfusion, or pouring the blood of one system into another, has
been practised for a century and a half, and satisfies us that the
blood, whether arterial or venous, of one individual, agrees well
enough with another of the same species; but some late experi-
ments of Dr. Leacock,
Medico-Chirurgical
Journal. 1817.
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. 1818.
it unlikely, contrary to the opinion of former experimentalists,
that the blood of one species suits the system of another. Dr.
Young found the large outer globules of the skate to be oval.
[13]
SECT. III.
OF THE SOLIDS IN GENERAL, AND OF THE
MUCOUS
WEB IN PARTICULAR.
17. The solids
first rudiments of the gelatinous embryo, they gradually
commence in their respective situations, and differ in-
finitely in their degrees
almost pulpy medullary matter of the brain, to the
vitreous substance of the corona of the teeth.
Hier. Dav.
Gaubius, Spec. exhibens ideam, generalem solidarum
c.h. par-
tium. Lugd. Bat. 1725. 4to.
tium. Lugd. Bat. 1725. 4to.
first rudiments of the gelatinous embryo, they gradually
commence in their respective situations, and differ in-
finitely in their degrees
Abr. Kaau Boerhaave, on the cohesion of the
solids in the animal body,
Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. t. iv. p. 343 sq.
Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropolit. t. iv. p. 343 sq.
almost pulpy medullary matter of the brain, to the
vitreous substance of the corona of the teeth.
18. Besides the gelatinous (11) and glutinous (15)
parts of the solids, earth enters more or less into their
composition, and is principally lime united with phos-
phoric acid. The bones possess this in the greatest
abundance, particularly in advanced age, whereas in
childhood the gelatinous matter abounds.
parts of the solids, earth enters more or less into their
composition, and is principally lime united with phos-
phoric acid. The bones possess this in the greatest
abundance, particularly in advanced age, whereas in
childhood the gelatinous matter abounds.
19. With respect to texture, a great part of the
solids consist of fibres more or less parallel. This may
be observed in the bones, especially of foetuses,
solids consist of fibres more or less parallel. This may
be observed in the bones, especially of foetuses,
The parallel
and reticulated bony fibres are most striking in the
radiated
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in young hcads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my museum, a preparataon of this kind, where in
the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones, the fibres are an inch or two in length,
distinct and delicate. The hardest parts, – the bony and vitreous portions of
the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which in the zeolite, malachite,
hematite, &c. all mineralogists call fibrous.
margins of the flat bones, as we find these in young hcads much enlarged by
hydrocephalus. I have, in my museum, a preparataon of this kind, where in
the sphenoid angles of the parietal bones, the fibres are an inch or two in length,
distinct and delicate. The hardest parts, – the bony and vitreous portions of
the teeth, exhibit a structure similar to that which in the zeolite, malachite,
hematite, &c. all mineralogists call fibrous.
[14]
muscles, tendons, ligaments,
aponeuroses, and in cer-
tain membranes, as the dura mater, &c.
tain membranes, as the dura mater, &c.
20. In other parts no fibres can be discovered, but
the texture is peculiar, has been called parenchyma
from the time of Erasistratus, and differs in different
viscera, especially the secreting, – of one kind in the
liver, of another in the kidneys.
the texture is peculiar, has been called parenchyma
from the time of Erasistratus, and differs in different
viscera, especially the secreting, – of one kind in the
liver, of another in the kidneys.
21. But in all the structures, whether fibrous or paren-
chymatous, there is interwoven a general mucous web,
commonly styled cellular, but improperly, because it
rather is continuous, equal, tenacious, ductile, sub-
pellucid, and glutinous.
converted into a cellular and vesicular membrane, and
demands a place among the most important and re-
markable constituents of the body. (A)
chymatous, there is interwoven a general mucous web,
Dav. Chr. Schobinger,
(Praes. Hallero) De tela Cellulosae in fabrica
c.h.
dignitate. Gotting. 1748. 4to. Sam. Chr. Lucae at the end of his Observ. Anatom.
circa nervos arterias adeuntes. Francof. 1810. 4to.
dignitate. Gotting. 1748. 4to. Sam. Chr. Lucae at the end of his Observ. Anatom.
circa nervos arterias adeuntes. Francof. 1810. 4to.
commonly styled cellular, but improperly, because it
rather is continuous, equal, tenacious, ductile, sub-
pellucid, and glutinous.
Casp. Fr. Wolff, Nov. Act. Petropol. t vi.
p. 259.
converted into a cellular and vesicular membrane, and
demands a place among the most important and re-
markable constituents of the body. (A)
22. For, in the first place, many solid parts, v.c.
most membranes and cartilages, may by long continued
maceration be resolved into it alone. With some it is
so intimately united, as to afford a receptacle and sup-
port for other constituents: v.c. the hardest bones
consisted at first of cartilage, that was originally con-
densed mucous membrane, but has since become dis-
tended by the effusion of bony matter into its substance,
which is rendered more lax and cellular. In fact, it is
universally present in the solids, if we except the epi-
dermis, nails, hairs, and the vitreous exterior of the
corona of the teeth, in which I have never been able to
discover it by employing the strongest acid.
most membranes and cartilages, may by long continued
maceration be resolved into it alone. With some it is
so intimately united, as to afford a receptacle and sup-
port for other constituents: v.c. the hardest bones
consisted at first of cartilage, that was originally con-
densed mucous membrane, but has since become dis-
tended by the effusion of bony matter into its substance,
which is rendered more lax and cellular. In fact, it is
universally present in the solids, if we except the epi-
dermis, nails, hairs, and the vitreous exterior of the
corona of the teeth, in which I have never been able to
discover it by employing the strongest acid.
23. To the muscles and membranes especially it
[15]
serves for separation from other
parts; to the vessels
and nerves for support; and to every part it acts as
the common medium of connection.
and nerves for support; and to every part it acts as
the common medium of connection.
24. From these facts, two inferences may be drawn.
First: That this membrane is so fundamental a consti-
tuent of our structure, that, were every other part re-
moved, the body would still retain its form.
First: That this membrane is so fundamental a consti-
tuent of our structure, that, were every other part re-
moved, the body would still retain its form.
Secondly: That it forms a connection between all
parts of the system, however different from each other
in nature or remote in situation: – a circumstance
worthy of attention, as putting an end to the verbal
disputes respecting the continuation of membranes, and
affording an explanation of many morbid phenomena.
parts of the system, however different from each other
in nature or remote in situation: – a circumstance
worthy of attention, as putting an end to the verbal
disputes respecting the continuation of membranes, and
affording an explanation of many morbid phenomena.
25. As most of the solids owe their existence to this
membrane, so again its origin is derived from the lymph
of the blood. I have found the lymph changed into
this membrane, when transuded on the surface of in-
flamed lungs, and, by forming false membranes, it
afterwards unites these organs to the pleura.
membrane, so again its origin is derived from the lymph
of the blood. I have found the lymph changed into
this membrane, when transuded on the surface of in-
flamed lungs, and, by forming false membranes, it
afterwards unites these organs to the pleura.
26. We shall now consider some varieties of this
membrane. In general, it is more delicate, caeteris pa-
ribus, in man than in animals, – a distinguishing prero-
gative, by which our sense is rendered more delicate,
and our motions and other functions more perfect.
Among different individuals, it varies much in laxity
and firmness, according to age, sex, temperament, mode
of life, climate, &c.
membrane. In general, it is more delicate, caeteris pa-
ribus, in man than in animals, – a distinguishing prero-
gative, by which our sense is rendered more delicate,
and our motions and other functions more perfect.
I have treated this point at large in my work, De Generis Humani varie-
tate nativa. p. 46. edit. 3.
tate nativa. p. 46. edit. 3.
Among different individuals, it varies much in laxity
and firmness, according to age, sex, temperament, mode
of life, climate, &c.
Finally, it varies in different parts; – more lax in the
palpebrae and preputium, and behind the fraenum of the
tongue; less so around the ears.
palpebrae and preputium, and behind the fraenum of the
tongue; less so around the ears.
[16]
27. Besides the purposes before mentioned (22,) (23),
it is destined for the reception of several kinds of fluids.
Its chief use in this respect is to receive that serous
halitus which moistens and lubricates every part. This,
when formed by the blood vessels, it imbibes like a
sponge and delivers over to the lymphatics, thus consti-
tuting the grand connection between these two systems
of vessels.
it is destined for the reception of several kinds of fluids.
Its chief use in this respect is to receive that serous
halitus which moistens and lubricates every part. This,
when formed by the blood vessels, it imbibes like a
sponge and delivers over to the lymphatics, thus consti-
tuting the grand connection between these two systems
of vessels.
28. In certain parts its office is to contain peculiar
fluids; v.c. in the eye, existing as the vitreous mem-
brane, it contains the vitreous humour: in the bones,
as the medullary membrane (improperly denominated
internal periosteum), the marrow; in soft parts, it is in
great abundance, and contains the rest of the fat, of
which we shall speak hereafter.
fluids; v.c. in the eye, existing as the vitreous mem-
brane, it contains the vitreous humour: in the bones,
as the medullary membrane (improperly denominated
internal periosteum), the marrow; in soft parts, it is in
great abundance, and contains the rest of the fat, of
which we shall speak hereafter.
NOTE.
(A) Since this structure neither secretes mucus, nor consists
of mucus, but chiefly of what becomes gelatine by the operation
of boiling water, the generally received appellation of cellular
membrane appears preferable to that of mucous tela adopted by
Blumenbach from Bordeu,
author (40) suggests the title of vis cellulosa for the contractile
power of the membrane.
of mucus, but chiefly of what becomes gelatine by the operation
of boiling water, the generally received appellation of cellular
membrane appears preferable to that of mucous tela adopted by
Blumenbach from Bordeu,
Récherches sur le tissu Muqueux.
author (40) suggests the title of vis cellulosa for the contractile
power of the membrane.
[17]
SECT. IV.
OF THE VITAL POWERS IN GENERAL, AND
PARTICU-
LARLY OF CONTRACTILITY.
29. Hitherto we have spoken of the solids as
the constituents of the system; we now shall view them
as endowed with vitality, – capable of receiving the
agency of stimuli, and of performing motions.
the constituents of the system; we now shall view them
as endowed with vitality, – capable of receiving the
agency of stimuli, and of performing motions.
30. Although vitality
are more easily known than defined, and usually indeed
rendered obscure rather than illustrated by an attempt
at definition, its effects are sufficiently manifest and
ascribable to peculiar powers only. The epithet vital
is given to these powers, because on them so much
depend the actions of the whole body during life and
of those parts which for a short time after death pre-
serve their vitality, that they are not referrible to any
qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical.
A host of authors on the
vital powers will be found in Fr. Hildebrandt’s
Lehrbuch der Physiologie. p. 54 sq. edit. 2. 1809. To whom we may add
E. Bartel’s Systemat. Entwurf einer allgemeinen Biologie. Franckfurt. 1808:
and J.B.P.A. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique. Paris. 1809. 11 vols. 8vo.
Lehrbuch der Physiologie. p. 54 sq. edit. 2. 1809. To whom we may add
E. Bartel’s Systemat. Entwurf einer allgemeinen Biologie. Franckfurt. 1808:
and J.B.P.A. Lamarck’s Philosophie Zoologique. Paris. 1809. 11 vols. 8vo.
are more easily known than defined, and usually indeed
rendered obscure rather than illustrated by an attempt
at definition, its effects are sufficiently manifest and
ascribable to peculiar powers only. The epithet vital
is given to these powers, because on them so much
depend the actions of the whole body during life and
of those parts which for a short time after death pre-
serve their vitality, that they are not referrible to any
qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical.
31. The latter qualities, however, are of great im-
portance in our economy. By physical powers, de-
pendent on the density and figure of the humours of the
eye, the rays of light are refracted to the axis; by me-
chanical, the epiglottis is elastic; by chemical affinity,
the changes of respiration are effected. But the perfect
difference of these dead powers from those which we
portance in our economy. By physical powers, de-
pendent on the density and figure of the humours of the
eye, the rays of light are refracted to the axis; by me-
chanical, the epiglottis is elastic; by chemical affinity,
the changes of respiration are effected. But the perfect
difference of these dead powers from those which we
[18]
are now
about to examine, is evident on the slightest
comparison of an organised economy with any inorganic
body, in which these inanimate powers are equally
strong.
comparison of an organised economy with any inorganic
body, in which these inanimate powers are equally
strong.
32. Indeed the vital powers are most
conspicuously
manifested by their resistance and superiority to the
others; v.c. during life, they so strongly oppose the
chemical affinities which induce putrefaction, that Stahl
and his followers referred their notion of life to this an-
tiseptic property;
gravity, that, according to the celebrated problem of
Borelli, a dead muscle would be broken asunder by
the very same weight, which, if alive, it could easily
raise; &c.
manifested by their resistance and superiority to the
others; v.c. during life, they so strongly oppose the
chemical affinities which induce putrefaction, that Stahl
and his followers referred their notion of life to this an-
tiseptic property;
“Life is formally nothing more than the preservation of the body in mix-Stahl.
ture, corruptible indeed, but without the occurrence of corruption.”
“What we call life is opposite to putridity.”J. Junker.
gravity, that, according to the celebrated problem of
Borelli, a dead muscle would be broken asunder by
the very same weight, which, if alive, it could easily
raise; &c.
33. As on the one hand, the vital properties are com-
pletely different from the properties of dead matter, so,
on the other, they must be carefully distinguished from
the mental faculties which will form the subject of the
next chapter: between them, however, there exists an
intimate and various relation, observable in many phe-
nomena, but especially in the diversity of tempera-
ment.
pletely different from the properties of dead matter, so,
on the other, they must be carefully distinguished from
the mental faculties which will form the subject of the
next chapter: between them, however, there exists an
intimate and various relation, observable in many phe-
nomena, but especially in the diversity of tempera-
ment.
34. The vital energy is the very basis of physiology,
and has therefore been always noticed, though under
different appellations. The titles of impetum faciens,
innate heat, archaeus, vital spirit, brute life, head of
the nervous system, active thinking principle, vital
tonic attraction, have been bestowed upon it by dif-
ferent authors.
and has therefore been always noticed, though under
different appellations. The titles of impetum faciens,
innate heat, archaeus, vital spirit, brute life, head of
the nervous system, active thinking principle, vital
tonic attraction, have been bestowed upon it by dif-
ferent authors.
[19]
35. Nor has there been less variety in the notions
and
definitions to which it has given rise; though in this
one point all have agreed, – that its nature and causes
are most obscure.
definitions to which it has given rise; though in this
one point all have agreed, – that its nature and causes
are most obscure.
36. As to the question so long agitated by physiolo-
gists, – whether the diversity of the phenomena exhibited
in the similar parts of the living solid is to be attri-
buted to modifications only, or to distinct species, of
the vital energy, we think it best to establish distinct
orders of the vital powers, according to the variety of
phenomena by which they are manifested.
gists, – whether the diversity of the phenomena exhibited
in the similar parts of the living solid is to be attri-
buted to modifications only, or to distinct species, of
the vital energy, we think it best to establish distinct
orders of the vital powers, according to the variety of
phenomena by which they are manifested.
37. These phenomena are threefold. – Organic for-
mation and increase; motion in the parts when formed;
sensation from the motion of certain similar parts.
mation and increase; motion in the parts when formed;
sensation from the motion of certain similar parts.
38. The first requisite involved in the name and notion
of an organised body, is a determinate form designed
for certain ends. That species, therefore, of the vital
powers is most general, which produces the genital and
nutritive fluids and prepares them for organic nature.
This species we have denominated the nisus formativus,
since it is the source of all generation, nutrition, and
reproduction, in each organised kingdom.
of an organised body, is a determinate form designed
for certain ends. That species, therefore, of the vital
powers is most general, which produces the genital and
nutritive fluids and prepares them for organic nature.
This species we have denominated the nisus formativus,
since it is the source of all generation, nutrition, and
reproduction, in each organised kingdom.
39. Those vital powers which are manifested by
motion, (37) properly so called, in parts already formed,
may be divided into common and proper. The common
are those belonging to similar parts which are widely
distributed: v.c. contractility to the mucous structure;
irritability to the muscular fibre. The proper are those
possessed only by individual organs whose motions
are peculiar and characteristic.
motion, (37) properly so called, in parts already formed,
may be divided into common and proper. The common
are those belonging to similar parts which are widely
distributed: v.c. contractility to the mucous structure;
irritability to the muscular fibre. The proper are those
possessed only by individual organs whose motions
are peculiar and characteristic.
40. Contractility is as generally distributed as
the
mucous structure, which it may be said to animate; and
therefore would perhaps not improperly be called the
mucous structure, which it may be said to animate; and
therefore would perhaps not improperly be called the
[20]
vis cellulosa. It is
characterised by a simple and not
very sensible effort of the mucous web to contract and
react upon its contents, especially upon its source of
moisture – the serous vapour, and to propel this into
the lymphatic system.
very sensible effort of the mucous web to contract and
react upon its contents, especially upon its source of
moisture – the serous vapour, and to propel this into
the lymphatic system.
That Haller and Theoph.
de Bordeu – the chief writers on the mucous tela,
did not form a just conception of this vital power, is evident from the latter’s
Récherches sur le Tissu Muqueux. Par. 1767. 8vo; and from the dissertation of the
former on Irritability in the Dictionnaire Encyclopédique d’Yverdun. T. xxv.
did not form a just conception of this vital power, is evident from the latter’s
Récherches sur le Tissu Muqueux. Par. 1767. 8vo; and from the dissertation of the
former on Irritability in the Dictionnaire Encyclopédique d’Yverdun. T. xxv.
41. Irritability, we mean the irritability of Haller,
is
peculiar to the muscles, and may be called the vis mus-
cularis. It is marked by an oscillatory or tremulous
motion, distinguished from the action of simple con-
tractility, by being far more permanent, and by occur-
ring far more easily on the application of any pretty
strong stimulus.
peculiar to the muscles, and may be called the vis mus-
cularis. It is marked by an oscillatory or tremulous
motion, distinguished from the action of simple con-
tractility, by being far more permanent, and by occur-
ring far more easily on the application of any pretty
strong stimulus.
Haller, De Partibus Corp. Hum. irritabilibus in the Nov. Comm. Soc. Reg.
Scient. Gotting. T. iv.
Scient. Gotting. T. iv.
42. Such are the common (39) moving vital powers.
But some organs differ from the rest so much in their
structure, motions, and functions, as not to come under
the laws of the common orders of vital powers. We
must, consequently, either reform the characters of these
orders, institute new ones, and extend their limits, or,
till this be done, separate these peculiar motions from
the common orders, and designate them by the name of
vitae propriae.
motions of the iris; the erection of the nipple; the
motions of the fimbriae of the Fallopian tubes; the
action of the placenta and of the womb during labour;
But some organs differ from the rest so much in their
structure, motions, and functions, as not to come under
the laws of the common orders of vital powers. We
must, consequently, either reform the characters of these
orders, institute new ones, and extend their limits, or,
till this be done, separate these peculiar motions from
the common orders, and designate them by the name of
vitae propriae.
I have
spoken of these at large both in my treatise De
Iridis Motu. 1784;
and my programma De Vi Vitali sanguini deneganda. 1795.
and my programma De Vi Vitali sanguini deneganda. 1795.
motions of the iris; the erection of the nipple; the
motions of the fimbriae of the Fallopian tubes; the
action of the placenta and of the womb during labour;
[21]
and probably the greater part of the function of se-
cretion.
cretion.
On the vita propria of
the absorbent vessels consult Seb. Justin. Brug-
mans, De Causa Absorptionis per Vasa Lymphatica. Lugd. Bat. 1795. 8vo.
mans, De Causa Absorptionis per Vasa Lymphatica. Lugd. Bat. 1795. 8vo.
On the peculiar vital properties of the arteries consult Chr. Kramp, Kritik
der Praktischen Arzneikunde. Leipzig. 1795. 8vo.
der Praktischen Arzneikunde. Leipzig. 1795. 8vo.
Many of the phenomena now mentioned are ascribed by others to an
orgasm,
to use an old expression, struggling from the centre to the circumference, and
lately designated vital turgor.
to use an old expression, struggling from the centre to the circumference, and
lately designated vital turgor.
43. So much in regard to the vital powers displayed
by motion (37, 39, 42). We have now to speak of
sensibility, which is peculiar to the nervous medulla
communicating with the sensorium. It bears the title
of vis nervea, and is the cause of perception when irri-
tation is excited in parts to which it is distributed.
by motion (37, 39, 42). We have now to speak of
sensibility, which is peculiar to the nervous medulla
communicating with the sensorium. It bears the title
of vis nervea, and is the cause of perception when irri-
tation is excited in parts to which it is distributed.
Fouquet, Dictionnaire Encyclopédique de Paris. T. xv.
Art. Sensibilité.
44. The order which we have followed in enume-
rating the vital powers, (38, 43) is that in which they
successively arise both during our formation and after
birth.
rating the vital powers, (38, 43) is that in which they
successively arise both during our formation and after
birth.
The nisus formativus must take place before we can
ascertain the existence of the new conception.
ascertain the existence of the new conception.
Then contractility is exerted in the gelatinous sub-
stance of the embryo.
stance of the embryo.
When the muscular fibres are produced, they acquire
irritability.
irritability.
In those few organs whose motions cannot properly
be referred either to contractility or irritability, there
next exists a vita propria.
be referred either to contractility or irritability, there
next exists a vita propria.
Finally, after birth, sensibility is superadded.
45. Similar also is the order, according to which
the
vital powers, both common and proper, are distributed
to the organised bodies of each kingdom.
vital powers, both common and proper, are distributed
to the organised bodies of each kingdom.
Consult C. Fr. Kielmeyer, Uber die Verhältnisse
der organischen Kräfte
in der Reihe der verschiedenen Organisationen. 1793. 8vo. H.F. Link, Uber
die Lebenskräfte in naturhistorischer Rücksicht. Rostock. 1795. 8vo.
in der Reihe der verschiedenen Organisationen. 1793. 8vo. H.F. Link, Uber
die Lebenskräfte in naturhistorischer Rücksicht. Rostock. 1795. 8vo.
[22]
The formative power must be most universal;
without it indeed organisation cannot be conceived to
exist.
without it indeed organisation cannot be conceived to
exist.
Contractility likewise is common to each kingdom.
Irritability and sensibility, in the sense above ex-
plained, are peculiar to animals.
plained, are peculiar to animals.
Lastly, the vita propria is variously observable
in
some organs, particularly the generative, both of certain
animals and vegetables.
some organs, particularly the generative, both of certain
animals and vegetables.
46. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that most of
these modes of vital energy, though necessarily distin-
guished into orders, are intimately connected; v.c. the
mucous web, forming the basis and seat of contractility
in so many organs, is interwoven also with the irritable
muscular fibres
these modes of vital energy, though necessarily distin-
guished into orders, are intimately connected; v.c. the
mucous web, forming the basis and seat of contractility
in so many organs, is interwoven also with the irritable
muscular fibres
See
Abildgaard, Acta Reg. Soc. Med. Havniens. T.
i.
47. Whatever may have been the opinions of physi-
ologists respecting the difference or identity of the vital
powers, it is universally agreed that they exist in the
similar solid parts, as the ancients called them, of which
the organs or dissimilar parts are composed. But it
has been disputed, and particularly of late, whether
vitality is peculiar to the solids or common also to the
fluids; and, the latter being granted, whether or no the
blood alone is so endowed.
ologists respecting the difference or identity of the vital
powers, it is universally agreed that they exist in the
similar solid parts, as the ancients called them, of which
the organs or dissimilar parts are composed. But it
has been disputed, and particularly of late, whether
vitality is peculiar to the solids or common also to the
fluids; and, the latter being granted, whether or no the
blood alone is so endowed.
48. As to the first question, the whole natural
history
of each organic kingdom, as far as it has hitherto been
cultivated, abundantly shows that those living parts,
however delicate, of all known animals and vegetables,
are solid; – a circumstance necessarily implied in their
determinate figure destined for certain uses. For, not
of each organic kingdom, as far as it has hitherto been
cultivated, abundantly shows that those living parts,
however delicate, of all known animals and vegetables,
are solid; – a circumstance necessarily implied in their
determinate figure destined for certain uses. For, not
[23]
to speak of entire animals (which, however simple,
as
worms, are nevertheless supplied with enveloping mem-
branes) the newly laid egg, though at first sight merely
fluid, on a more careful examination is discovered to
consist of different membranes, of the halones, the cica-
tricula, &c.
worms, are nevertheless supplied with enveloping mem-
branes) the newly laid egg, though at first sight merely
fluid, on a more careful examination is discovered to
consist of different membranes, of the halones, the cica-
tricula, &c.
Humidity is indeed necessary in the living solid for
the exertion of vitality. But that vitality exists in the
solid, as solid, is proved by the well-known instances
of animalcules and the seeds of plants, in which,
although long dried, the vital principle is so entire, that
they again live and germinate.
the exertion of vitality. But that vitality exists in the
solid, as solid, is proved by the well-known instances
of animalcules and the seeds of plants, in which,
although long dried, the vital principle is so entire, that
they again live and germinate.
49. With respect to the supposed exclusive vitality
of the blood, I candidly confess that no fact has been
adduced in its favour since the time of Harvey, which
might not, I think, be more easily, simply, and naturally
explained on the contrary supposition.
of the blood, I candidly confess that no fact has been
adduced in its favour since the time of Harvey, which
might not, I think, be more easily, simply, and naturally
explained on the contrary supposition.
For example, the incorruptibility of the blood during
life, is far more explicable by the perpetual changes
which it undergoes, especially in respiration.
life, is far more explicable by the perpetual changes
which it undergoes, especially in respiration.
That the blood is the material from which the living
solids are produced, is no stronger an argument of its
vitality, than the formation of nymphaeae and of so
many other remarkable plants would be for the vitality
of water.
solids are produced, is no stronger an argument of its
vitality, than the formation of nymphaeae and of so
many other remarkable plants would be for the vitality
of water.
It is difficult to comprehend how the coagulation of
the lymph of the blood can demonstrate its vitality.
The organic formation of this lymph in generation, nu-
trition, and reproduction, depends not upon the lymph
itself, as lymph, but upon the action of the nisus for-
mativus (38) upon it.
the lymph of the blood can demonstrate its vitality.
The organic formation of this lymph in generation, nu-
trition, and reproduction, depends not upon the lymph
itself, as lymph, but upon the action of the nisus for-
mativus (38) upon it.
50. Those who formerly contended
v. c. Dan.
Bernouilli, De Respiratione.Basil. 1721.
“Respiration supplies a very subtle air, which, when intimately mixed with
the blood, greatly condensed, conveyed to the moving fibres, and allowed by
the animal spirits to exert its powers, inflates, contracts, and moves the muscles,
and thus promotes the circulation of fluids and imparts motion to mobile
parts.”
[24]
acquires in the lungs from the
air a certain principle to
be universally distributed during circulation, for the
purpose of imparting motion, &c. to the organs, were
right, if they regarded that principle (analogous to the
oxygen of the moderns) as the stimulant of the living
solid; wrong, if they regarded it as vitality itself.
be universally distributed during circulation, for the
purpose of imparting motion, &c. to the organs, were
right, if they regarded that principle (analogous to the
oxygen of the moderns) as the stimulant of the living
solid; wrong, if they regarded it as vitality itself.
51. For it is on all hands agreed, that no motion oc-
curs but upon the action of stimuli, to receive which
action the vital powers are naturally adapted and
intended.
curs but upon the action of stimuli, to receive which
action the vital powers are naturally adapted and
intended.
52. These stimuli,
niently reduced to three classes; – chemical, mechanical,
and mental. For the present, we shall say nothing of
their various modes of action, – in some instances
direct, – in others indirect, by sympathy and sensorial
reaction. It is sufficient at present to cite a few ex-
amples of functions, to which each class of stimuli
conspires: such is the increased secretion of tears,
saliva, bile, &c. and the venereal turgescence of the
genitals.
Laur. Bellini, De Sanguinis Missione. p. 165–193.
Sylvest. Douglas, De Stimulis. Lugd. Bat.
1766.
niently reduced to three classes; – chemical, mechanical,
and mental. For the present, we shall say nothing of
their various modes of action, – in some instances
direct, – in others indirect, by sympathy and sensorial
reaction. It is sufficient at present to cite a few ex-
amples of functions, to which each class of stimuli
conspires: such is the increased secretion of tears,
saliva, bile, &c. and the venereal turgescence of the
genitals.
53. If the nature of stimuli is infinitely various, no
less so are their effects, according to their nature, inten-
sity, or continued and repeated application to the living
solid. Hence they are generally divided into exciting
and depressing.
less so are their effects, according to their nature, inten-
sity, or continued and repeated application to the living
solid. Hence they are generally divided into exciting
and depressing.
54. The power of certain stimuli in increasing the
[25]
effects of others, is very
remarkable: v.c. the power of
caloric, upon which probably national temperament
chiefly depends.
stimulus, is similar.
oxygen, (50) by whose chemical stimulus the vital
powers, particularly irritability, are greatly excited,
and more disposed to react, upon the impulse of other
stimuli.
caloric, upon which probably national temperament
chiefly depends.
Montesquieu, De l’Esprit des Lois. T. ii. p. 34. London.
1757. 8vo.
stimulus, is similar.
J. Casp. Hirzel, De Animi laeti et erecti efficacia in corpore sano et
aegro.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.
oxygen, (50) by whose chemical stimulus the vital
powers, particularly irritability, are greatly excited,
and more disposed to react, upon the impulse of other
stimuli.
55. Not less considerable than the variety of stimuli,
is that more minute discrepancy of the different organs,
and of the same organs in different individuals, accord-
ing to age, sex, temperament, idiosyncrasy, habit, mode
of life, &c., to which are owing the diversified effects of
the same stimuli upon different organs,
the same in different individuals, and upon which
depends what the English have lately termed specific
irritability.
is that more minute discrepancy of the different organs,
and of the same organs in different individuals, accord-
ing to age, sex, temperament, idiosyncrasy, habit, mode
of life, &c., to which are owing the diversified effects of
the same stimuli upon different organs,
Called Le Tact ou le Gout particulier de chaque Partie, by Theoph.
de
Bordeu, Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes. p. 376 sq.
Bordeu, Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes. p. 376 sq.
the same in different individuals, and upon which
depends what the English have lately termed specific
irritability.
Sam. Farr, on Animal Motion. 1771. 8vo. p.
141.
J. Mudge’s Cure for a recent catarrhous Cough.
Edit. 2. 1779. 8vo.
p. 238.
p. 238.
Gilb. Blane, On Muscular Motion. 1788. 4to. p.
22.
J.L. Gautier, De irritabilitatis notione, &c.
Hal. 1793. 8vo. p. 56.
56. Lastly, the influence of stimuli by means of sym-
pathy, is very extraordinary: by its means, if one part
is excited, another, frequently very remote, consents in
feeling, motion, or some peculiar function.
pathy, is very extraordinary: by its means, if one part
is excited, another, frequently very remote, consents in
feeling, motion, or some peculiar function.
J.H. Rahn, De Causis Physicis Sympathiae. Exerc. i.–vii.
Tigur. from
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