[25]
effects of others, is very
remarkable: v.c. the power of
caloric, upon which probably national temperament
chiefly depends.
stimulus, is similar.
oxygen, (50) by whose chemical stimulus the vital
powers, particularly irritability, are greatly excited,
and more disposed to react, upon the impulse of other
stimuli.
caloric, upon which probably national temperament
chiefly depends.
Montesquieu, De l’Esprit des Lois. T. ii. p. 34. London.
1757. 8vo.
stimulus, is similar.
J. Casp. Hirzel, De Animi laeti et erecti efficacia in corpore sano et
aegro.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.
Lugd. Bat. 1746.
oxygen, (50) by whose chemical stimulus the vital
powers, particularly irritability, are greatly excited,
and more disposed to react, upon the impulse of other
stimuli.
55. Not less considerable than the variety of stimuli,
is that more minute discrepancy of the different organs,
and of the same organs in different individuals, accord-
ing to age, sex, temperament, idiosyncrasy, habit, mode
of life, &c., to which are owing the diversified effects of
the same stimuli upon different organs,
the same in different individuals, and upon which
depends what the English have lately termed specific
irritability.
is that more minute discrepancy of the different organs,
and of the same organs in different individuals, accord-
ing to age, sex, temperament, idiosyncrasy, habit, mode
of life, &c., to which are owing the diversified effects of
the same stimuli upon different organs,
Called Le Tact ou le Gout particulier de chaque Partie, by Theoph.
de
Bordeu, Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes. p. 376 sq.
Bordeu, Recherches Anatomiques sur les Glandes. p. 376 sq.
the same in different individuals, and upon which
depends what the English have lately termed specific
irritability.
Sam. Farr, on Animal Motion. 1771. 8vo. p.
141.
J. Mudge’s Cure for a recent catarrhous Cough.
Edit. 2. 1779. 8vo.
p. 238.
p. 238.
Gilb. Blane, On Muscular Motion. 1788. 4to. p.
22.
J.L. Gautier, De irritabilitatis notione, &c.
Hal. 1793. 8vo. p. 56.
56. Lastly, the influence of stimuli by means of sym-
pathy, is very extraordinary: by its means, if one part
is excited, another, frequently very remote, consents in
feeling, motion, or some peculiar function.
pathy, is very extraordinary: by its means, if one part
is excited, another, frequently very remote, consents in
feeling, motion, or some peculiar function.
J.H. Rahn, De Causis Physicis Sympathiae. Exerc. i.–vii.
Tigur. from
1786. 4to.
1786. 4to.
Sylloge selectiorum opusculor. de mirabili sympathia
quae partes inter di-
versas c.h. intercedit. Edited by J.C. Tr. Schlegel. Lips. 1787. 8vo.
versas c.h. intercedit. Edited by J.C. Tr. Schlegel. Lips. 1787. 8vo.
[26]
The primary and most extensive cause of sympathy
must be referred to the nerves,
the sensorial reaction;
is excited, the sensorium is affected, which, reacting by
means of the nerves on another part, draws it into con-
sent with the first, although there exist between them no
immediate nervous connection. Such is the sympathy
of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by light; and
of the diaphragm during sneezing, when the Schnei-
derian membrane is irritated.
must be referred to the nerves,
G. Egger (the
author Lawr. Gasser), De consensu nervorum.
Vindob.
1766. 8vo.
1766. 8vo.
the sensorial reaction;
J.G. Zinn’s
Observations on the different Structure of the Human Eye
and that of Brutes. Diss. ii. 1757. Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting.
antiquiores. T. i.
and that of Brutes. Diss. ii. 1757. Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting.
antiquiores. T. i.
is excited, the sensorium is affected, which, reacting by
means of the nerves on another part, draws it into con-
sent with the first, although there exist between them no
immediate nervous connection. Such is the sympathy
of the iris, when the retina is stimulated by light; and
of the diaphragm during sneezing, when the Schnei-
derian membrane is irritated.
There are other examples of sympathy, in which the
nerves, if they have any, have a more remote and ac-
cessory, share:
pathy along the blood vessels, strikingly instanced
between the internal mammary and epigastric arteries,
especially in advanced pregnancy; that along the lym-
phatic vessels,
and suckling; and again, that dependent on analogy of
structure and function, v.c. the sympathy of the lungs
with the surface and intestines. (A)
nerves, if they have any, have a more remote and ac-
cessory, share:
Consider the constant sympathy of heat between certain parts of
some
animals, v.c. of the hairs with the fauces, in variegated rabbits, sheep, dogs, &c.;
of the feathers with the covering of the bill and feet in varieties of the domestic
duck. That many such instances are not referrible to the influence of nerves,
I contended in my Comm. de motu iridis. p. 12 sq. and also in my work de
generis humani varietate nativa, p. 364 sq.
animals, v.c. of the hairs with the fauces, in variegated rabbits, sheep, dogs, &c.;
of the feathers with the covering of the bill and feet in varieties of the domestic
duck. That many such instances are not referrible to the influence of nerves,
I contended in my Comm. de motu iridis. p. 12 sq. and also in my work de
generis humani varietate nativa, p. 364 sq.
pathy along the blood vessels, strikingly instanced
between the internal mammary and epigastric arteries,
especially in advanced pregnancy; that along the lym-
phatic vessels,
Innumerable pathological phenomena will be found
explained by this sym-
pathy in S. Th. Soemmerring’s De Morbis Vasorum Absorbentium Diss. quae
praemium retulit. Francof. 1795. 8vo.
pathy in S. Th. Soemmerring’s De Morbis Vasorum Absorbentium Diss. quae
praemium retulit. Francof. 1795. 8vo.
and suckling; and again, that dependent on analogy of
structure and function, v.c. the sympathy of the lungs
with the surface and intestines. (A)
[27]
57. The vital powers will be hereafter separately con-
sidered, under the distinct heads of our subject: – The
nisus formativus under the head of Generation; irrita-
bility under that of the Muscles; sensibility under that
of the Nervous System; the vita propria whenever
occasion requires.
sidered, under the distinct heads of our subject: – The
nisus formativus under the head of Generation; irrita-
bility under that of the Muscles; sensibility under that
of the Nervous System; the vita propria whenever
occasion requires.
58. Besides our former brief remarks (40) upon con-
tractility, a few more minute will at present be very
appropriate.
tractility, a few more minute will at present be very
appropriate.
It prevails universally,(40) wherever the mucous tela
is discoverable.
is discoverable.
It is consequently most abundant in parts destitute of
proper parenchyma, but composed almost entirely of
mucous tela, v.c. in certain membranes: for no one will
deny their contractility, who reflects upon the spastic
motions of the dartos, the male urethra, or the gall
bladder, which during death is always closely contracted
upon any calculi it may contain.
proper parenchyma, but composed almost entirely of
mucous tela, v.c. in certain membranes: for no one will
deny their contractility, who reflects upon the spastic
motions of the dartos, the male urethra, or the gall
bladder, which during death is always closely contracted
upon any calculi it may contain.
It appears also in those viscera which consist chiefly
of this tela, v.c. in the lungs, whose external surface
we have found on living dissection very contractile; but
by no means, as Varnier asserted, truly irritable. (B)
of this tela, v.c. in the lungs, whose external surface
we have found on living dissection very contractile; but
by no means, as Varnier asserted, truly irritable. (B)
The presence of contractility even in the bones, is
demonstrated by the shrinking of the alveoli after the
loss of the teeth, and by the process of necrosis, by
which the new bone, when the dead portion is extricated
from its cavity, contracts to its natural size and figure.
demonstrated by the shrinking of the alveoli after the
loss of the teeth, and by the process of necrosis, by
which the new bone, when the dead portion is extricated
from its cavity, contracts to its natural size and figure.
The vitreous substance of the teeth, being destitute of
this tela (22), possesses no contractility, as I think ap-
pears from the circumstance of its not shrinking, like
the alveoli, if a portion is separated by caries or
fracture.
this tela (22), possesses no contractility, as I think ap-
pears from the circumstance of its not shrinking, like
the alveoli, if a portion is separated by caries or
fracture.
59. This contractility of the mucous tela is the chief
[28]
cause of strength, health, and
beauty; since on it depend
the vital elasticity and fulness,
parts, so elegantly decribed by Stahl; for by its means,
the mucous tela, to mention one only of its functions,
absorbs, during health, the serous fluid (27) like a
sponge, and propels it into the lymphatic vessels: in
disease, on the contrary, having lost its tone, it is filled
with water, giving rise to oedema and similar cachexies.
the vital elasticity and fulness,
Hence after death, even in young subjects full
of juices, the back, loins,
and buttocks, having for some time lost their vital tone, are, if the body is
supine, depressed and flattened by the superincumbent weight, which now is
not resisted: this appearance I regard among the indubitable signs of death.
and buttocks, having for some time lost their vital tone, are, if the body is
supine, depressed and flattened by the superincumbent weight, which now is
not resisted: this appearance I regard among the indubitable signs of death.
parts, so elegantly decribed by Stahl; for by its means,
the mucous tela, to mention one only of its functions,
absorbs, during health, the serous fluid (27) like a
sponge, and propels it into the lymphatic vessels: in
disease, on the contrary, having lost its tone, it is filled
with water, giving rise to oedema and similar cachexies.
60. Finally, the great influence of this contractility
in producing the peculiar constitution and tempera-
ments of individuals, is manifest from its universal
existence, its close union with the other vital powers,
and from its infinite varieties and degrees in different
persons.
in producing the peculiar constitution and tempera-
ments of individuals, is manifest from its universal
existence, its close union with the other vital powers,
and from its infinite varieties and degrees in different
persons.
NOTES.
(A) John Hunter divides sympathy into general and partial;
such as fever from a wound, and convulsion of the diaphragm
from irritation in the nose. Partial sympathy he subdivides into
remote, contiguous, and continuous, – Where there is no evident
connection between the sympathising parts, sufficient to account
for the circumstance, – Where there is proximity of the sympa-
thising parts, – and Where, as most commonly, the sympathising
parts are continuous.
such as fever from a wound, and convulsion of the diaphragm
from irritation in the nose. Partial sympathy he subdivides into
remote, contiguous, and continuous, – Where there is no evident
connection between the sympathising parts, sufficient to account
for the circumstance, – Where there is proximity of the sympa-
thising parts, – and Where, as most commonly, the sympathising
parts are continuous.
Treatise on the Blood,
&c. Introduction.
Bichat’s division is much better.
indeed, till after the perusal of the note to the sixth section.
Anatomie Générale. T. i. p. 183
sq.
indeed, till after the perusal of the note to the sixth section.
[29]
He considers sympathy as affecting either animal sensibility
or
contractility, or organic sensibility or contractility.
contractility, or organic sensibility or contractility.
Sympathy does not arise from nervous communication, because
it frequently happens that no particular nervous communications
of sympathising parts are discoverable, while remarkable ones ex-
ist between other parts not disposed to sympathise.
which have no nerves, shew sympathy: – if a leaflet of the sen-
sitive plant is stimulated by a burning glass, the whole leaf con-
tracts and the foot-stalk drops;
feel the warmth of summer, the sap ascends in the roots; and
even in a frost it will ascend from the roots through the stem, if
a single branch is introduced into a hot-house.
it frequently happens that no particular nervous communications
of sympathising parts are discoverable, while remarkable ones ex-
ist between other parts not disposed to sympathise.
Consult
Whytt, Observations on Nervous Diseases. Ch.
i.
which have no nerves, shew sympathy: – if a leaflet of the sen-
sitive plant is stimulated by a burning glass, the whole leaf con-
tracts and the foot-stalk drops;
Sir Gilbert Blane,
Medical Logic. p. 61.
feel the warmth of summer, the sap ascends in the roots; and
even in a frost it will ascend from the roots through the stem, if
a single branch is introduced into a hot-house.
Sympathy of animal contractility occurs only when the nerves
connecting the affected muscles with the brain, are entire; when
they were divided by Bichat, the convulsions in the correspond-
ing muscles ceased. The sympathies of the organic functions are
never ascribable, as many might imagine, to continuity of sur-
face; for after dividing the oesophagus of a dog, Bichat produced
vomiting equally as before, on irritating the fauces.
connecting the affected muscles with the brain, are entire; when
they were divided by Bichat, the convulsions in the correspond-
ing muscles ceased. The sympathies of the organic functions are
never ascribable, as many might imagine, to continuity of sur-
face; for after dividing the oesophagus of a dog, Bichat produced
vomiting equally as before, on irritating the fauces.
(B) Our author here, as below (135), means the pulmonary
portion of the pleura, and very properly regards this and other
serous membranes, as condensed cellular substance; that is, as
a substance not originally cellular and now condensed, but of
the same nature with the cellular membrane, though much more
compact.
portion of the pleura, and very properly regards this and other
serous membranes, as condensed cellular substance; that is, as
a substance not originally cellular and now condensed, but of
the same nature with the cellular membrane, though much more
compact.
Consult
Bichat, Traité des membranes.
[30]
SECT. V.
OF THE MENTAL FACULTIES.
61. Man, whom we have found possessed of a
body,
answering completely both in matter and texture, as
well as vital powers, the purposes of its formation, is
endowed likewise with a mind, a
loping by education and exercise various kinds of facul-
ties, which we shall concisely enumerate, as far as they
belong to our subject.
answering completely both in matter and texture, as
well as vital powers, the purposes of its formation, is
endowed likewise with a mind, a
“divinae particulaintimately connected with the body, and deve-
aurae,”
loping by education and exercise various kinds of facul-
ties, which we shall concisely enumerate, as far as they
belong to our subject.
Consult Alex. Chrichton, Inquiry into the nature and origin of mental
derangement, comprehending a concise system of the Physiology and Pathology
of the human mind. Lond. 1798. 2 vols. 8vo. Em. Kant, Anthropologie in
pragmatischer Hinsicht. Königsb. 1798. 8vo. Chr. Meiner, Untersuchungen
über die Denkkräfte und Willenskräfte des Menschen nach Anleitung der
Erfahrung. Gött. 1806. 2 vols. 8vo.
derangement, comprehending a concise system of the Physiology and Pathology
of the human mind. Lond. 1798. 2 vols. 8vo. Em. Kant, Anthropologie in
pragmatischer Hinsicht. Königsb. 1798. 8vo. Chr. Meiner, Untersuchungen
über die Denkkräfte und Willenskräfte des Menschen nach Anleitung der
Erfahrung. Gött. 1806. 2 vols. 8vo.
62. The sensibility of the nerves, mentioned above
among the vital powers, (43) constitutes, as it were, the
medium which propagates the impressions of stimuli
upon sensible parts, and especially upon the organs of
sense (to be hereafter examined), to the sensorial por-
tion of the brain, in such a manner that they are per-
ceived by the mind.
among the vital powers, (43) constitutes, as it were, the
medium which propagates the impressions of stimuli
upon sensible parts, and especially upon the organs of
sense (to be hereafter examined), to the sensorial por-
tion of the brain, in such a manner that they are per-
ceived by the mind.
63. The mental faculty to be first enumerated, and
indeed to be placed at the bottom of the scale, is the
faculty of perception, by means of which the mind takes
cognizance of impressions made upon the body, and
chiefly upon the organs of sense, and becomes furnished
with ideas.
indeed to be placed at the bottom of the scale, is the
faculty of perception, by means of which the mind takes
cognizance of impressions made upon the body, and
chiefly upon the organs of sense, and becomes furnished
with ideas.
[31]
64. This faculty is assisted by another of an higher
order, – attention, which so directs the mind, when ex-
cited, to any idea, that it dwells upon that idea alone
and surveys it fully.
order, – attention, which so directs the mind, when ex-
cited, to any idea, that it dwells upon that idea alone
and surveys it fully.
65. To preserve and recall the marks of ideas, is the
office of memory – that part of the mind, which, in the
language of Cicero, is the guardian of the rest.
office of memory – that part of the mind, which, in the
language of Cicero, is the guardian of the rest.
66. Imagination,
the mind, which represents not merely the signs, but the
very images, of objects in the most lively manner, as if
they were present before the eyes.
The
difference, analogy, and relation, of memory and judgment, have
given
rise to various controversies. Some celebrated psychologists have included
both under the word imagination taken in its most comprehensive sense, and
have divided it into two species; memory – representing former ideas, and the
facultas fingendi – representing such ideas only as are formed by abstraction.
They again divide memory into sensitive (imagination in a stricter sense) and
intellectual.
rise to various controversies. Some celebrated psychologists have included
both under the word imagination taken in its most comprehensive sense, and
have divided it into two species; memory – representing former ideas, and the
facultas fingendi – representing such ideas only as are formed by abstraction.
They again divide memory into sensitive (imagination in a stricter sense) and
intellectual.
Their facultas fingendi they also subdivide into
intellectual – the more ex-
cellent; and phantasy – obeying mechanical laws. Feder, Grundsätze der
Logik und Metaphysik. Götting. 1794. p. 20.
cellent; and phantasy – obeying mechanical laws. Feder, Grundsätze der
Logik und Metaphysik. Götting. 1794. p. 20.
the mind, which represents not merely the signs, but the
very images, of objects in the most lively manner, as if
they were present before the eyes.
67. Abstraction forms general notions more
remote
from sense.
from sense.
68. Judgment compares and examines the relations
of
the ideas of sense and of abstract notions.
the ideas of sense and of abstract notions.
69. Lastly reason – the most noble and excellent
of
all the faculties, draws inferences from the comparisons
of the judgment.
all the faculties, draws inferences from the comparisons
of the judgment.
Of this the highest
prerogative of the human mind, by which man exerts
his dominion over other animals, and indeed over the whole creation, I have
fully treated in my book De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. p. 32. ed. 3.
his dominion over other animals, and indeed over the whole creation, I have
fully treated in my book De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. p. 32. ed. 3.
70. The combination of these constitutes the intellectual
faculty; but there is another order, relating to appetency,
the word being taken in its most extensive meaning.
faculty; but there is another order, relating to appetency,
the word being taken in its most extensive meaning.
[32]
71. For since we are impelled by various internal
stimuli to provide food and other necessaries, and
also to satisfy the sexual instinct, and are impelled the
more violently, in proportion as imagination inflames
our wishes, desires, properly so called, are thus pro-
duced; and if, on the other hand, the mind becomes
weary of unpleasant sensations, aversions occur.
stimuli to provide food and other necessaries, and
also to satisfy the sexual instinct, and are impelled the
more violently, in proportion as imagination inflames
our wishes, desires, properly so called, are thus pro-
duced; and if, on the other hand, the mind becomes
weary of unpleasant sensations, aversions occur.
72. Finally, that faculty which selects out of many
desires and aversions, and can at pleasure determine to
perform functions for certain purposes, is denominated
volition.
desires and aversions, and can at pleasure determine to
perform functions for certain purposes, is denominated
volition.
73. Our order of enumeration corresponds with that
of the development of the faculties, and with the
relation in which those termed brute – common to man
and animals, and those more or less peculiar to man,
stand to each other.
of the development of the faculties, and with the
relation in which those termed brute – common to man
and animals, and those more or less peculiar to man,
stand to each other.
NOTE.
Dr. Gall gives a very different view of the mental faculties.
Instead of dividing them into memory, judgment, &c. as funda-
mental faculties; and viewing
powers as distinct faculties, and memory, judgment, &c. merely
as modes or varieties common to the action of each faculty. He
contends that when we see a boy, brought up exactly like his
brothers and sisters, displaying fine musical talents or an asto-
Instead of dividing them into memory, judgment, &c. as funda-
mental faculties; and viewing
“the Power of Taste, a genius for&c. as
Poetry, for Painting, for Music, for Mathematics,”
“more
complicated powers or capacities, which are gradually formed by
particular habits of study or of business;”
Dugald Stewart, Outlines
of Moral Philosophy. p. 10.
powers as distinct faculties, and memory, judgment, &c. merely
as modes or varieties common to the action of each faculty. He
contends that when we see a boy, brought up exactly like his
brothers and sisters, displaying fine musical talents or an asto-
[33]
nishing power of
calculation, though in all other respects a
child, his pre-eminence cannot be explained by particular habits
of study or of business, nor by mere strength of judgment.
child, his pre-eminence cannot be explained by particular habits
of study or of business, nor by mere strength of judgment.
For my own part when I reflect upon the various talents and
dispositions of persons all in the same circumstances – how un-
successfully some apply, with the utmost perseverance, to a branch
of study, in which another under the same instructors, or perhaps
scarcely assisted at all, reaches excellence, with little trouble –
how early various tempers are developed among children of the
same nursery – how hereditary peculiarities of talent and charac-
ter are – how similar some persons are to each other in one re-
spect, and dissimilar in another – how positively contradictory
many points of the same character are found; I confess myself
unable to deny that there is one innate faculty for numbers, ano-
ther for colours, a third for music, &c. &c. with a variety of
distinct innate sentiments and propensities; and that memory,
judgment, &c. are but modes of action common to the different
faculties and partly to different sentiments and propensities.
dispositions of persons all in the same circumstances – how un-
successfully some apply, with the utmost perseverance, to a branch
of study, in which another under the same instructors, or perhaps
scarcely assisted at all, reaches excellence, with little trouble –
how early various tempers are developed among children of the
same nursery – how hereditary peculiarities of talent and charac-
ter are – how similar some persons are to each other in one re-
spect, and dissimilar in another – how positively contradictory
many points of the same character are found; I confess myself
unable to deny that there is one innate faculty for numbers, ano-
ther for colours, a third for music, &c. &c. with a variety of
distinct innate sentiments and propensities; and that memory,
judgment, &c. are but modes of action common to the different
faculties and partly to different sentiments and propensities.
The sentiments and propensities which Dr. Spurzheim enume-
rates, respect sexual love, love of offspring, inhabiting particular
situations, attachment, contention, destruction, construction, ac-
quirement, concealment, love of self, love of praise, cautious-
ness, benevolence, veneration, hope, conscientiousness, decision,
and imitation.
to the same author, are for judging of form, size, weight,
colour, space, number, tune, order? time? He enumerates like-
wise a faculty relating to languages, one to the ludicrous, one to
poetry, one to judging of cause and effect, one to the cognisance
rates, respect sexual love, love of offspring, inhabiting particular
situations, attachment, contention, destruction, construction, ac-
quirement, concealment, love of self, love of praise, cautious-
ness, benevolence, veneration, hope, conscientiousness, decision,
I was
convinced of this being a distinct power, upon perusing an
Essay
on decision of character, written some years ago by a dissenting minister who
I dare say never thought of craniology. Essays by John Foster.
on decision of character, written some years ago by a dissenting minister who
I dare say never thought of craniology. Essays by John Foster.
and imitation.
A
wonderful instance of this propensity is
detailed in the Philos. Trans.
1677. The strength of it seems part of the national character of the Ashan-
tees. Bowditch, Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee. p. 292.
1677. The strength of it seems part of the national character of the Ashan-
tees. Bowditch, Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee. p. 292.
to the same author, are for judging of form, size, weight,
colour, space, number, tune, order? time? He enumerates like-
wise a faculty relating to languages, one to the ludicrous, one to
poetry, one to judging of cause and effect, one to the cognisance
[34]
of
the ideas of all the other faculties, and one again to
their
comparison.
comparison.
I should be extremely sorry to affirm that this is a complete
or accurate account of the faculties, sentiments, and propensi-
ties of the human mind, or that Dr. Spurzheim’s book
tains no bad reasoning nor ridiculous illustration; but I am
convinced that Dr. Gall has given us the first correct sketch of
the constituents of the human mind, whatever more labour may
be necessary to complete the detail, and has put us in the only
right road for learning all that can be known of it. (218. E)
or accurate account of the faculties, sentiments, and propensi-
ties of the human mind, or that Dr. Spurzheim’s book
The Physiognomical System
of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim.
tains no bad reasoning nor ridiculous illustration; but I am
convinced that Dr. Gall has given us the first correct sketch of
the constituents of the human mind, whatever more labour may
be necessary to complete the detail, and has put us in the only
right road for learning all that can be known of it. (218. E)
Every sentiment and propensity was given us for a good pur-
pose, and it is only when one is naturally or by indulgence ex-
cessive, thwarting and Crossing the operation of others, and
especially of conscientiousness, that error occurs; and on
this subject the profound metaphysical sermons, preached at
the Rolls Chapel by the pious and exemplary Bishop Butler,
highly deserve perusal.
the Bishop proves, is to virtue. Their mutual thwartings oc-
casion the deformities of the moral world, exactly as the crossing
of physical laws gives rise to the blemishes of inanimate nature.
Nor do I believe that the beauties of the inanimate world surpass
the beauties of the moral, or that the deformities of the moral
are more appalling than the deformities of the physical. Both
are governed by wise general laws; good is the object, evil the
occasional, incidental, accompaniment. (666. F)
pose, and it is only when one is naturally or by indulgence ex-
cessive, thwarting and Crossing the operation of others, and
especially of conscientiousness, that error occurs; and on
this subject the profound metaphysical sermons, preached at
the Rolls Chapel by the pious and exemplary Bishop Butler,
highly deserve perusal.
Serm. i. Upon the
social nature of man. Serm. ii. iii. Upon
the natural
supremacy of conscience.
supremacy of conscience.
the Bishop proves, is to virtue. Their mutual thwartings oc-
casion the deformities of the moral world, exactly as the crossing
of physical laws gives rise to the blemishes of inanimate nature.
Nor do I believe that the beauties of the inanimate world surpass
the beauties of the moral, or that the deformities of the moral
are more appalling than the deformities of the physical. Both
are governed by wise general laws; good is the object, evil the
occasional, incidental, accompaniment. (666. F)
[35]
SECT. VI.
OF HEALTH AND HUMAN NATURE.
74. Sincehealth,
depends upon such an harmony and equilibrium of the
matter and powers of the system, as is requisite for the
due performance of its functions, it is very evident how
the four principles, examined above, contribute to its
support.
Theod. G. Aug.
Roose, Uber die Krankheiten der Gesunden.
Götting.
1801. 8vo.
1801. 8vo.
G. Chr. Klett, Tentamen evolvendi notionem de sanitate
hominis. Wirceb.
1794. 8vo.
1794. 8vo.
depends upon such an harmony and equilibrium of the
matter and powers of the system, as is requisite for the
due performance of its functions, it is very evident how
the four principles, examined above, contribute to its
support.
75. Fluids properly prepared are the first
requisite;
in the next place, solids duly formed from the fluids;
then the invigorating influence of the vital powers; lastly,
a sound mind in this sound body.
in the next place, solids duly formed from the fluids;
then the invigorating influence of the vital powers; lastly,
a sound mind in this sound body.
76. These four principles act and react perpetually
upon each other: the fluids are stimuli to the solids;
these again are calculated by their vital powers to ex-
perience the influence of these stimuli, and react upon
them. In reference to the intimate union of the mind
with the body, suffice it at present to remark, that it is
far more extensive than might at first be imagined. For
instance, the influence of the will is not confined within
the narrow limits of those actions designated voluntary
in the schools of physiology; and the mind, on the
other hand, is influenced by the affections of the body, in
many other ways than by the perceptions of sense.
upon each other: the fluids are stimuli to the solids;
these again are calculated by their vital powers to ex-
perience the influence of these stimuli, and react upon
them. In reference to the intimate union of the mind
with the body, suffice it at present to remark, that it is
far more extensive than might at first be imagined. For
instance, the influence of the will is not confined within
the narrow limits of those actions designated voluntary
in the schools of physiology; and the mind, on the
other hand, is influenced by the affections of the body, in
many other ways than by the perceptions of sense.
Galen, quod animi mores corporis temperaturas sequantur.
St. J. Van. Geuns,
De corporum habitudine animae hujusque virium
indice ac
moderatrice. Harderv. 1789. 4to.
moderatrice. Harderv. 1789. 4to.
[36]
77. From the endless variety and modification of the
conditions belonging to these four principles, it may be
easily understood what great latitude
to the notion of health. For since, as Celsus long ago
observed, every one has some part weaker than the rest,
Galen may in this sense assert with truth, that no one
enjoys perfect health. And even among those whom
we commonly regard as in good health, this is variously
modified in each individual.
conditions belonging to these four principles, it may be
easily understood what great latitude
Galen, De sanitate tuenda. L.i.
to the notion of health. For since, as Celsus long ago
observed, every one has some part weaker than the rest,
Galen may in this sense assert with truth, that no one
enjoys perfect health. And even among those whom
we commonly regard as in good health, this is variously
modified in each individual.
W.F. Ad. Gerresheim, De sanitate cuivis homini propria. Lugd.
Bat.
1764. 4to.
1764. 4to.
78. Upon this endless modification is founded the
difference
mode and aptitude of the living solid
vidual, to be affected by stimuli, especially the mental;
and again, of the mental stimuli, to be excited with
greater or less facility.
difference
Lavater, Physiognomische
Fragmente. T. iv. p. 343.
W. Ant. Ficker, Comm. de temperamentis hominum
quatenus ex fabrica et
structura corporis pendent. Gotting. 1791. 4to.
structura corporis pendent. Gotting. 1791. 4to.
J.N. Hallé, Mem. de la Soc. Médicale d’Emulat. T.
iii. p. 342.
mode and aptitude of the living solid
To the numerous arguments by which the moderns
have overthrown the
doctrine of the ancients, and proved that the temperament depends on the living
solids rather than on the nature of the blood, I may add the celebrated example
of the Hungarian sister twins, who, at the beginning of the last century, were
born united at the lower part of the back, and attained their twenty-second
year in this state. They were, as is well known, of very different temperaments,
although dissection discovered that their sanguiferous systems anastomosed so
considerably that the blood of both must have been the same.
doctrine of the ancients, and proved that the temperament depends on the living
solids rather than on the nature of the blood, I may add the celebrated example
of the Hungarian sister twins, who, at the beginning of the last century, were
born united at the lower part of the back, and attained their twenty-second
year in this state. They were, as is well known, of very different temperaments,
although dissection discovered that their sanguiferous systems anastomosed so
considerably that the blood of both must have been the same.
vidual, to be affected by stimuli, especially the mental;
and again, of the mental stimuli, to be excited with
greater or less facility.
79. So various are the differences of degree and com-
bination in the temperaments, that their divisions and
orders may be multiplied almost without end. We
bination in the temperaments, that their divisions and
orders may be multiplied almost without end. We
[37]
shall content ourselves with the four orders
commonly
received.
slightly: The choleric – excited readily and violently:
The melancholic – excited slowly, but more permanently:
And the phlegmatic – excited with difficulty.
received.
Kant, l.c. p. 257
sq.
slightly: The choleric – excited readily and violently:
The melancholic – excited slowly, but more permanently:
And the phlegmatic – excited with difficulty.
This division, although built by Galen upon an absurd
foundation borrowed from an imaginary depravation of
the elements of the blood, appears, if made to stand
alone, both natural and intelligible.
foundation borrowed from an imaginary depravation of
the elements of the blood, appears, if made to stand
alone, both natural and intelligible.
80. The predisposing and occasional causes of
the
diversity of temperaments are very numerous; v.c.
hereditary tendency, habit of body, climate, diet, re-
ligion, mode of life, and luxury.
diversity of temperaments are very numerous; v.c.
hereditary tendency, habit of body, climate, diet, re-
ligion, mode of life, and luxury.
Feder, Untersuchung über den menschlichen Willen. T. ii. p.
49.
81. Besides the variety of temperaments, circum-
stances peculiar to every individual, by influencing the
number, as well as the energy and vigour, of the functions,
increase the latitude (77) in which the term health must
be received. In regard to age, the health of a new-born
infant is different from that of an adult; in regard to
sex, it differs in a marriageable virgin and an old woman
past child-bearing, and during menstruation and suck-
ling; in regard to mode of life, it is different in the
barbarous tribes of North America and in effeminate
Sybarites.
stances peculiar to every individual, by influencing the
number, as well as the energy and vigour, of the functions,
increase the latitude (77) in which the term health must
be received. In regard to age, the health of a new-born
infant is different from that of an adult; in regard to
sex, it differs in a marriageable virgin and an old woman
past child-bearing, and during menstruation and suck-
ling; in regard to mode of life, it is different in the
barbarous tribes of North America and in effeminate
Sybarites.
Moreover, in every person, custom has an extra-
ordinary influence
ordinary influence
Galen, De Consuetudine.
G.E. Stahl, De consuetudinis efficacia generali in
actibus vitalibus. Hal.
1700. 4to.
1700. 4to.
H. Cullen, De Consuetudine. Edinb. 1780. 8vo.
C. Natorp, De vi consuetudinis. Gott. 1808.
4to.
[38]
diet; and has therefore acquired
the name of second
nature.
nature.
82. The more functions flourish simultaneously in the
body, the more considerable is its life; and vice versâ.
Hence life is greatest when the functions have attained
their highest perfection in adult age; and least when
the functions, although very perfect, are fewer and more
sluggish, v.c. in the newly conceived embryo; life is
for the same reason less vigorous during sleep than
during the opposite state.
body, the more considerable is its life; and vice versâ.
Hence life is greatest when the functions have attained
their highest perfection in adult age; and least when
the functions, although very perfect, are fewer and more
sluggish, v.c. in the newly conceived embryo; life is
for the same reason less vigorous during sleep than
during the opposite state.
83. The functions have been long divided by physi-
ologists into four classes. This division, although not
unexceptionable nor exactly conformable to nature,
may assist the memory.
ologists into four classes. This division, although not
unexceptionable nor exactly conformable to nature,
See Platner, Quaest. physiol. p. 31; and Versuch einer Anthropologie.
T. i. p. 100, 222; and my own remarks on the bad foundation of this division,
in the preface to my Enchiridion Anat. Comparata, p. xi sq.
T. i. p. 100, 222; and my own remarks on the bad foundation of this division,
in the preface to my Enchiridion Anat. Comparata, p. xi sq.
may assist the memory.
J.J. Bernhard, Versuch einer Vertheidigung der
alten Eintheilung der
Functionen, und einer Classification des organisirten Körper nach denselben.
Erf. 1804. 8vo.
Functionen, und einer Classification des organisirten Körper nach denselben.
Erf. 1804. 8vo.
1. The first class comprehends the vital functions,
so
termed, because their uninterrupted and complete per-
formance is necessary to life. Such are the circulation
and respiration.
termed, because their uninterrupted and complete per-
formance is necessary to life. Such are the circulation
and respiration.
2. The second comprehends the animal functions,
by
which animals are chiefly distinguished from vegetables.
Such is the connection of the mind with the body, espe-
cially sense and muscular motion.
which animals are chiefly distinguished from vegetables.
Such is the connection of the mind with the body, espe-
cially sense and muscular motion.
3. The third is the natural, by means of which
the
body is nourished.
body is nourished.
4. The fourth, the genital, intended for the propaga-
tion of the species.
tion of the species.
[39]
We shall now examine each of these separately, be-
ginning with the vital.
ginning with the vital.
NOTE.
The consideration of a division as ancient as Aristotle, and
preferable to that which Blumenbach adopts, will perhaps form
an useful note to the eighty-third paragraph and the greater part
of the fourth section.
preferable to that which Blumenbach adopts, will perhaps form
an useful note to the eighty-third paragraph and the greater part
of the fourth section.
In this, the functions are arranged in two classes: – the ani-
mal constituting one peculiar to animals; and the vital and na-
tural united into another, common to vegetables and animals,
under the title of organic or vital. The generative, relating in
their object to the species rather than to the individual, and of
but temporary duration, are thrown into a separate and inferior
division, but in fact are merely part of the organic.
mal constituting one peculiar to animals; and the vital and na-
tural united into another, common to vegetables and animals,
under the title of organic or vital. The generative, relating in
their object to the species rather than to the individual, and of
but temporary duration, are thrown into a separate and inferior
division, but in fact are merely part of the organic.
We owe the revival of this classification, and our knowledge
of the characteristics of each class of functions, to Dr. Wilson
Philip
published a work expressly on the subject, has received the whole
honour, both in great Britain and on the Continent.
of the characteristics of each class of functions, to Dr. Wilson
Philip
Treatise on Febrile
Diseases. Ch. iii. Sect. 3. First Edition. 1799. Paper
read, to the Royal Med. Society of Edinburgh. 1791 or 1792, and inserted in
its Records. Essay on Opium. 1795. Edinburgh Med. and Surgical Journal.
July. 1809. p. 301 sq.
read, to the Royal Med. Society of Edinburgh. 1791 or 1792, and inserted in
its Records. Essay on Opium. 1795. Edinburgh Med. and Surgical Journal.
July. 1809. p. 301 sq.
Récherches Physiologiques sur la Vie et la
Mort.
published a work expressly on the subject, has received the whole
honour, both in great Britain and on the Continent.
The animal functions prove us feeling, thinking, and
willing
beings: they are the actions of the senses which receive impres-
sions, of the brain which perceives them, reflects upon them,
and wills; of the voluntary muscles which execute the will in
regard to motion; and of the nerves which are the agents of
transmission. The brain is their Central organ. The vital or
beings: they are the actions of the senses which receive impres-
sions, of the brain which perceives them, reflects upon them,
and wills; of the voluntary muscles which execute the will in
regard to motion; and of the nerves which are the agents of
transmission. The brain is their Central organ. The vital or
[40]
organic functions are
independent of mind, and give us simply
the notion of life: they are digestion, circulation, respiration,
exhalation, absorption, secretion, nutrition, calorification. The
heart is their Central organ.
the notion of life: they are digestion, circulation, respiration,
exhalation, absorption, secretion, nutrition, calorification. The
heart is their Central organ.
The organs of the animal functions are double and corres-
pondent, there being on each side of the median line of the
body, either two distinct organs, as the eyes, ears, extremities;
or two correspondent halves, as is the case with the brain, spi-
nal marrow, nose, tongue, &c.
pondent, there being on each side of the median line of the
body, either two distinct organs, as the eyes, ears, extremities;
or two correspondent halves, as is the case with the brain, spi-
nal marrow, nose, tongue, &c.
The organs of the vital or organic functions, are in very few
instances double or situated with their centres in the median
line and possessed of symmetrical halves; witness the heart,
stomach, liver. There are indeed two kidneys, but they con-
tinually differ in size, figure, and situation: the two lungs are
very dissimilar.
instances double or situated with their centres in the median
line and possessed of symmetrical halves; witness the heart,
stomach, liver. There are indeed two kidneys, but they con-
tinually differ in size, figure, and situation: the two lungs are
very dissimilar.
Hence Bichat infers, that in the animal functions a harmony
of action in each organ or each half of the organ, is indispen-
sable to perfection, when both organs or sides act together;
and that if such harmony do not occur, it would be better for
one organ or one half to act alone. This is unquestionably true
of the eye, but can be supposed by analogy only with regard to
the brain, ears, &c. It certainly does not hold good in the
actions of the voluntary muscles, nor in the operations of the
brain or spinal marrow in willing those actions. From the du-
plicity of the organs it also happens that one side may cease to
act without detriment to the function of the other; while in the
vital or organic class no harmony of action is possible and the
derangement of any one part of an organ generally affects the
whole of it, – an obstruction in the colon disturbs the functions
of all the alimentary canal.
of action in each organ or each half of the organ, is indispen-
sable to perfection, when both organs or sides act together;
and that if such harmony do not occur, it would be better for
one organ or one half to act alone. This is unquestionably true
of the eye, but can be supposed by analogy only with regard to
the brain, ears, &c. It certainly does not hold good in the
actions of the voluntary muscles, nor in the operations of the
brain or spinal marrow in willing those actions. From the du-
plicity of the organs it also happens that one side may cease to
act without detriment to the function of the other; while in the
vital or organic class no harmony of action is possible and the
derangement of any one part of an organ generally affects the
whole of it, – an obstruction in the colon disturbs the functions
of all the alimentary canal.
The animal functions experience periodical intermissions –
sleep. The organic or vital continue incessantly, suffering merely
remissions: – the blood constantly circulates, the perspiratory
fluid is constantly secreted, the stomach has no sooner digested
one meal than we commit another to it; yet we shall hereafter
sleep. The organic or vital continue incessantly, suffering merely
remissions: – the blood constantly circulates, the perspiratory
fluid is constantly secreted, the stomach has no sooner digested
one meal than we commit another to it; yet we shall hereafter
[41]
see that the actions of the heart, lungs, &c.
have daily intervals
of remission.
of remission.
The animal functions are much influenced by habit; the vital
or organic are considered by Bichat as removed from its influence.
The power of habit over our sensations and voluntary motions
is manifest: yet I think it equally great over the organic func-
tions. The operation of food and of all descriptions of ingesta
is most remarkably modified by habit; through it poisons be-
come comparatively innoxious, and divers bear a long suspension
of respiration.
or organic are considered by Bichat as removed from its influence.
The power of habit over our sensations and voluntary motions
is manifest: yet I think it equally great over the organic func-
tions. The operation of food and of all descriptions of ingesta
is most remarkably modified by habit; through it poisons be-
come comparatively innoxious, and divers bear a long suspension
of respiration.
Bichat regards the passions as directly influencing the organic
functions only, and springing from the state of the organs of
that class. Here he is to me perfectly unintelligible. Vexation
indeed disturbs the stomach, and fear augments the quantity of
urine; but does not vexation equally and as directly disturb the
mind – confuse the understanding, and occasion heat and pain
of the forehead? Are not, in fact, the passions a part of the
mind? – a part of the animal functions? They powerfully affect,
it is true, the organic or vital functions, but this shows the close
connection merely between the two classes of functions.
functions only, and springing from the state of the organs of
that class. Here he is to me perfectly unintelligible. Vexation
indeed disturbs the stomach, and fear augments the quantity of
urine; but does not vexation equally and as directly disturb the
mind – confuse the understanding, and occasion heat and pain
of the forehead? Are not, in fact, the passions a part of the
mind? – a part of the animal functions? They powerfully affect,
it is true, the organic or vital functions, but this shows the close
connection merely between the two classes of functions.
This connection is conspicuous in respiration, the mechanical
part of which belongs to the animal functions, the other to the
organic; and in the alimentary actions, in which the food is
swallowed and the faeces rejected by volition, and digestion,
&c. performed, independently of our influence, by the powers of
simple life. So close indeed is this connection, that every organ
of the animal class is the seat of organic functions; – in the vo-
luntary muscles, the organs of sense, and even in the brain, cir-
culation, secretion, and absorption are constantly carried on.
This connection is likewise apparent in the property of sensibility.
In the language of Bichat there are animal sensibility and contrac-
tility, and organic sensibility and contractility, besides the common
extensibility of matter, which he terms extensibilité de tissu, and
common contractility upon the removal of distention, – Con-
tractilité par défaut d’extension, confounded by Blumenbach
part of which belongs to the animal functions, the other to the
organic; and in the alimentary actions, in which the food is
swallowed and the faeces rejected by volition, and digestion,
&c. performed, independently of our influence, by the powers of
simple life. So close indeed is this connection, that every organ
of the animal class is the seat of organic functions; – in the vo-
luntary muscles, the organs of sense, and even in the brain, cir-
culation, secretion, and absorption are constantly carried on.
This connection is likewise apparent in the property of sensibility.
In the language of Bichat there are animal sensibility and contrac-
tility, and organic sensibility and contractility, besides the common
extensibility of matter, which he terms extensibilité de tissu, and
common contractility upon the removal of distention, – Con-
tractilité par défaut d’extension, confounded by Blumenbach
[42]
(58. clause 5 and 6) with
purely vital contractility, and indeed
greater during life than afterwards.Nutritur ventis, ventis extinguitur ignis, Lenis alit
flammas, grandior aura necat.
greater during life than afterwards.
The following is
Bichat’s table of the properties of the living body: –
[Abbildung: ]
Although these are the general properties of the living frame, and
sensibility,
or more properly excitability, is at the bottom of all other vital or organic
properties except the active power of contraction, yet each part has also some
peculiarity, altogether inexplicable, not in the least, I think, to be accounted
for on Bichat’s supposition of each part possessing a certain degree of organic
sensibility in relation to its fluids. What causes the vessels of muscle to pro-
duce muscle; of bone, bone; of membrane, membrane; what causes the se-
creting vessels of the liver to form bile, and of the testes semen, we know not.
The cause of these circumstances may be called by Blumenbach, after Bordeu,
vitae propriae; but it must be carefully remembered that this expression simply
denotes an unknown cause of a fact, and affords no explanation.
or more properly excitability, is at the bottom of all other vital or organic
properties except the active power of contraction, yet each part has also some
peculiarity, altogether inexplicable, not in the least, I think, to be accounted
for on Bichat’s supposition of each part possessing a certain degree of organic
sensibility in relation to its fluids. What causes the vessels of muscle to pro-
duce muscle; of bone, bone; of membrane, membrane; what causes the se-
creting vessels of the liver to form bile, and of the testes semen, we know not.
The cause of these circumstances may be called by Blumenbach, after Bordeu,
vitae propriae; but it must be carefully remembered that this expression simply
denotes an unknown cause of a fact, and affords no explanation.
Feeling, I use the word for want of another to embrace consciousness
and
perception, is in the same manner at the bottom of all the mental properties
except the active power of willing, but it alone will not explain them. All
matter is probably the same; but its modifications also are so various that at
present we are compelled to speak of distinct kinds of matter.
perception, is in the same manner at the bottom of all the mental properties
except the active power of willing, but it alone will not explain them. All
matter is probably the same; but its modifications also are so various that at
present we are compelled to speak of distinct kinds of matter.
The operation of agents on the system is analogous. As far as they
all affect
the living solid they may be all called stimuli; but they differ in something
more than degree of stimulus. Each affects in a peculiar way; some directly
depress life, and many occasion opposite results in different parts.
the living solid they may be all called stimuli; but they differ in something
more than degree of stimulus. Each affects in a peculiar way; some directly
depress life, and many occasion opposite results in different parts.
When organic sensibility is heightened in one part, it sinks in
another,
and vice versa, unless the change of it should be such as to extend generally,
and even then it is still frequently found in the opposite state in some parti-
cular part: – we notice coldness of the feet and fulness of the head together;
blisters relieve internal inflammation, and irritate the more difficultly in pro-
portion to the violence of the internal disease. The same phenomena are
observable in animal sensibility and in the mind at large: –
and vice versa, unless the change of it should be such as to extend generally,
and even then it is still frequently found in the opposite state in some parti-
cular part: – we notice coldness of the feet and fulness of the head together;
blisters relieve internal inflammation, and irritate the more difficultly in pro-
portion to the violence of the internal disease. The same phenomena are
observable in animal sensibility and in the mind at large: –
“Tut, man! one fire puts out another’s burning,
“One pain is lessen’d by another’s anguish;
“Turn giddy, and be holp by backward turning;
“One desperate grief cures with another’s languish;
“Take thou some new infection to thy eye,
“And the rank poison of the old will die.”
Shakspeare. Romeo, Act. i. Sc. ii.
The effect of vicissitudes of temperature, and a large number of
other pa-
thological phenomena, are principally explicable on the derangement of the
balance of excitability and for the most part consequently of circulation.
(Sect. XX. B)
thological phenomena, are principally explicable on the derangement of the
balance of excitability and for the most part consequently of circulation.
(Sect. XX. B)
Notwithstanding it is a general law (53) that the effects of a
stimulus dimi-
nish the more frequently it is applied, yet if it is applied so energetically as to
leave the sensibility heightened, especially if to the point of inflammation, its
subsequent power is greatly increased. Immense potations of spirituous liquors
may gradually be borne, but if the increase is too sudden, the sensibility of the
stomach may become such that a single glass will prove violently irritating.
nish the more frequently it is applied, yet if it is applied so energetically as to
leave the sensibility heightened, especially if to the point of inflammation, its
subsequent power is greatly increased. Immense potations of spirituous liquors
may gradually be borne, but if the increase is too sudden, the sensibility of the
stomach may become such that a single glass will prove violently irritating.
The specific action of one agent frequently prevents that of another;
– small-
pox and measles very rarely occur together, and the former is often prevented
for ever by the cow-pock.
pox and measles very rarely occur together, and the former is often prevented
for ever by the cow-pock.
While moderate excitement is necessary to maintain action, violent
wears out
the power, and very violent may suddenly destroy life altogether: according
to the verses,
the power, and very violent may suddenly destroy life altogether: according
to the verses,
[43]
panied by a
perception in the mind, as in seeing, hearing, tasting,
smelling, feeling: animal contractility is excited by the volition
of the mind conveyed to the voluntary muscles by means of the
nerves. Organic sensibility is attended by no perception, and is fol-
lowed by contraction totally independent of the will: – the heart
feels, if we may so speak, (physiology has no proper term for
the idea) the stimulus of the blood, and, without our influence,
forthwith contracts; the lacteals feel the stimulus of the chyle
without our knowledge, and propel it without our assistance.
But although we never acquire the least direct voluntary power
over the actions of organic contractility, – over the peristaltic
motion of the intestines or the contractions of the blood vessels,
smelling, feeling: animal contractility is excited by the volition
of the mind conveyed to the voluntary muscles by means of the
nerves. Organic sensibility is attended by no perception, and is fol-
lowed by contraction totally independent of the will: – the heart
feels, if we may so speak, (physiology has no proper term for
the idea) the stimulus of the blood, and, without our influence,
forthwith contracts; the lacteals feel the stimulus of the chyle
without our knowledge, and propel it without our assistance.
But although we never acquire the least direct voluntary power
over the actions of organic contractility, – over the peristaltic
motion of the intestines or the contractions of the blood vessels,
[44]
yet
every organ of the organic functions may have its organic
sensibility heightened into animal sensibility, as inflammation,
for instance of the pleura and the joints, daily demonstrates:
indeed, in some organs of that class of functions, we invariably
have sensation; – the stomach is the seat of hunger, in the lungs
we experience an uneasy sensation nearly as soon as their air is
expelled.
sensibility heightened into animal sensibility, as inflammation,
for instance of the pleura and the joints, daily demonstrates:
indeed, in some organs of that class of functions, we invariably
have sensation; – the stomach is the seat of hunger, in the lungs
we experience an uneasy sensation nearly as soon as their air is
expelled.
The nerves of the animal functions run to the brain or spinal
marrow; those of the organic chiefly to ganglia; but, as might
be expected, the two nervous systems have abundant com-
munications.
marrow; those of the organic chiefly to ganglia; but, as might
be expected, the two nervous systems have abundant com-
munications.
The animal functions have not only a shorter existence than
the organic from their necessity of alternate repose, but they
flourish for a shorter duration, – they do not commence till birth,
they decline, and, in the natural course of events, terminate,
earlier, – the organs of sense and the mental faculties fail before
the action of the heart and capillaries. The decay of the animal
functions must, in truth, be the consequence of the decay of the
organic, because there are fundamentally in every part organic
functions, – circulation, nutrition, &c. and the perfect perform-
ance of these in the organs of the animal functions is indispen-
sable to the perfect performance of the animal functions. Hence
the impairment of these organic functions, even to a small ex-
tent, must derange or diminish the animal functions, which will
thus decline while there is still sufficient life for the organic
functions to continue.
the organic from their necessity of alternate repose, but they
flourish for a shorter duration, – they do not commence till birth,
they decline, and, in the natural course of events, terminate,
earlier, – the organs of sense and the mental faculties fail before
the action of the heart and capillaries. The decay of the animal
functions must, in truth, be the consequence of the decay of the
organic, because there are fundamentally in every part organic
functions, – circulation, nutrition, &c. and the perfect perform-
ance of these in the organs of the animal functions is indispen-
sable to the perfect performance of the animal functions. Hence
the impairment of these organic functions, even to a small ex-
tent, must derange or diminish the animal functions, which will
thus decline while there is still sufficient life for the organic
functions to continue.
We thus find in every living system a class of functions, not
in themselves dependent upon mind, as perfect in the vegetable
as in the animal, and pervading every part of the system. In
animals there further exist certain parts which when endowed
with the common life of other parts, – with the organic proper-
ties, are able to perform peculiar functions which give us the
notion of mind: the organ of these functions is termed brain,
and, by means of nerves and medullary prolongations, it main-
tains a correspondence with the whole machine, influenced by
in themselves dependent upon mind, as perfect in the vegetable
as in the animal, and pervading every part of the system. In
animals there further exist certain parts which when endowed
with the common life of other parts, – with the organic proper-
ties, are able to perform peculiar functions which give us the
notion of mind: the organ of these functions is termed brain,
and, by means of nerves and medullary prolongations, it main-
tains a correspondence with the whole machine, influenced by
[45]
and influencing the most distant parts. The
phenomena of the
mind have been metaphysically considered in the fifth section;
they will be examined as functions of the nervous system in the
twelfth.
mind have been metaphysically considered in the fifth section;
they will be examined as functions of the nervous system in the
twelfth.
The organic functions depend on life in the
proper accepta-
tion of the word. The word life should be regarded, like the
word attraction or repulsion, as merely an expression of a fact.
In this point of view it may be as easily defined as any other
expression. By life we generally mean the power of organised
matter to preserve its particles in such chemical relations as to
prevent other chemical relations from inducing disorganisation,
or even to increase or decrease by internal appropriation and
separation; to preserve in some measure a temperature distinct
from that of the surrounding medium; to move certain parts of
itself sensibly (as muscles) or insensibly (as the capillaries) inde-
pendently of mere impulse, attraction, or repulsion: or if not
organised (as the fluids which form the embryo, the blood,)
the power of matter produced by an organised body endowed
with the properties above mentioned, to resist the ordinary che-
mical influences, and directly form (as the genital fluids) an
organised system so endowed, or directly contribute (as the
blood) to the organised substance of an already formed system
so endowed.
tion of the word. The word life should be regarded, like the
word attraction or repulsion, as merely an expression of a fact.
In this point of view it may be as easily defined as any other
expression. By life we generally mean the power of organised
matter to preserve its particles in such chemical relations as to
prevent other chemical relations from inducing disorganisation,
or even to increase or decrease by internal appropriation and
separation; to preserve in some measure a temperature distinct
from that of the surrounding medium; to move certain parts of
itself sensibly (as muscles) or insensibly (as the capillaries) inde-
pendently of mere impulse, attraction, or repulsion: or if not
organised (as the fluids which form the embryo, the blood,)
the power of matter produced by an organised body endowed
with the properties above mentioned, to resist the ordinary che-
mical influences, and directly form (as the genital fluids) an
organised system so endowed, or directly contribute (as the
blood) to the organised substance of an already formed system
so endowed.
That fluids are as susceptible of life as solids I cannot doubt.
There is no reason why they should not be so, although a person
who has not thought upon the subject may be as unable to con-
ceive the circumstance as a West Indian to conceive that water
may by cold become solid. It is impossible to deny that the male
and female genital fluids are alive, because from their union a liv-
ing being is produced that partakes of the vital qualities of each
parent. Accordingly Blumenbach, in his Commentatio de vitali
sanguinis,
There is no reason why they should not be so, although a person
who has not thought upon the subject may be as unable to con-
ceive the circumstance as a West Indian to conceive that water
may by cold become solid. It is impossible to deny that the male
and female genital fluids are alive, because from their union a liv-
ing being is produced that partakes of the vital qualities of each
parent. Accordingly Blumenbach, in his Commentatio de vitali
sanguinis,
“In universum sane post omnia quae super hoc argumento sive meditandoComment. Soc. Reg. Societ. Gotting. vol. ix. p. 12.
sive experiundo hactenus elicere licuit, nulli humorum nostri corporis genuina
vis vitalis tribuenda videtur, si unice a genitali utriusque sexus latice discesseris,
utpote cui jam arte quam uterino cavo exceptus et intime mixtus in foetus for-
mationem abit, vitales inhaerere vires formativas, praeter alia paterni vultus in
nepotes propagata similitudo, aliaque id genus phaenomena haud infitianda de-
monstrare videntur.”
[46]
nothwithstanding that he fancies his victory over the defenders of
the blood’s life so complete, that like that of the unfortunate
Carthaginian Dido, as he says,
easy to conceive the blood to be alive as the genital fluids. The
great asserter of the life of the blood is Mr. Hunter,
mere adoption of this view of the facts relative to that fluid by
Mr. Hunter, would entitle it to the utmost respect from me who
find the most ardent and independent love of truth, and the
genuine stamp of genius, in every passage of his works. The
freedom of the blood from putrefaction while circulating, and
its inability to coagulate after death from arsenic, electricity, and
lightning, may, like its inability to coagulate when mixed with
bile, be simply chemical phenomena, independent of vitality.
But its inability to coagulate after death from violent exercise,
anger, or a blow on the stomach, which deprive the muscles
likewise of their usual stiffness; its accelerated coagulation by
means of heat; perhaps its diminished coagulation by the ad-
mixture of opium; its earlier putridity when drawn from old
than from young persons; its freezing, like eggs, frogs, snails, &c.
more readily when once previously frozen (which change may be
supposed to have exhausted its powers); its directly becoming
the blood’s life so complete, that like that of the unfortunate
Carthaginian Dido, as he says,
“in ventos vita recessit.”It is as
easy to conceive the blood to be alive as the genital fluids. The
great asserter of the life of the blood is Mr. Hunter,
The doctrine of the life of the blood was
maintained by Harvey (Exercit.
L. De Generationis ordine, &c.) Glisson (De ventriculo et intestinis) and Albinus.
(Blumenbach’s Commentat. l.c.) I am surprised that Moses should be adduced
as authority for this opinion. When he says (Leviticus. ch. xvii. 11,14.)
mean only that when it is withdrawn, life ceases, – that it is necessary to the
life of animals. He also says (v. 14.)
The construction which would make Moses assert that the blood is alive,
involves the absurd assertion that the blood only is alive.
L. De Generationis ordine, &c.) Glisson (De ventriculo et intestinis) and Albinus.
(Blumenbach’s Commentat. l.c.) I am surprised that Moses should be adduced
as authority for this opinion. When he says (Leviticus. ch. xvii. 11,14.)
“For–
the life of the flesh is in the blood”
“For it is the life of all flesh,”he can
mean only that when it is withdrawn, life ceases, – that it is necessary to the
life of animals. He also says (v. 14.)
“the blood of it is for the life thereof.”
The construction which would make Moses assert that the blood is alive,
involves the absurd assertion that the blood only is alive.
mere adoption of this view of the facts relative to that fluid by
Mr. Hunter, would entitle it to the utmost respect from me who
find the most ardent and independent love of truth, and the
genuine stamp of genius, in every passage of his works. The
freedom of the blood from putrefaction while circulating, and
its inability to coagulate after death from arsenic, electricity, and
lightning, may, like its inability to coagulate when mixed with
bile, be simply chemical phenomena, independent of vitality.
But its inability to coagulate after death from violent exercise,
anger, or a blow on the stomach, which deprive the muscles
likewise of their usual stiffness; its accelerated coagulation by
means of heat; perhaps its diminished coagulation by the ad-
mixture of opium; its earlier putridity when drawn from old
than from young persons; its freezing, like eggs, frogs, snails, &c.
more readily when once previously frozen (which change may be
supposed to have exhausted its powers); its directly becoming
[47]
the solid organised
substance of our bodies, while the food
requires various intermediate changes before it is capable of
affording nutriment; the inosculation of the vessels formed in
extravasated blood and secreted lymph with those of surrounding
parts; and finally the production of the genital fluids from the
blood itself; do appear to me very strong arguments in favour of
the life of the blood.
lieve that the chyle is alive, and that vivification commences even
in the stomach, although I should be sorry to go the same
length with Albinus, who granted life even to the excrement.
For the excretions must be regarded as dead matter, useless and
foreign to the system; and they all run with the greatest rapi-
dity into decomposition. In operating for retention of urine,
the surgeon finds this fluid abominably foetid; the faeces become
so when not discharged in due time; and the neglect of washing
the surface is the source of filthiness and disease.
requires various intermediate changes before it is capable of
affording nutriment; the inosculation of the vessels formed in
extravasated blood and secreted lymph with those of surrounding
parts; and finally the production of the genital fluids from the
blood itself; do appear to me very strong arguments in favour of
the life of the blood.
Consult
Hunter’s Treatise on the Blood, &c.P.i.
ch. i.
lieve that the chyle is alive, and that vivification commences even
in the stomach, although I should be sorry to go the same
length with Albinus, who granted life even to the excrement.
For the excretions must be regarded as dead matter, useless and
foreign to the system; and they all run with the greatest rapi-
dity into decomposition. In operating for retention of urine,
the surgeon finds this fluid abominably foetid; the faeces become
so when not discharged in due time; and the neglect of washing
the surface is the source of filthiness and disease.
The essential nature of life is an impenetrable mystery, and
no more a subject for philosophical inquiry than the essential
nature of attraction or of matter. To attempt explaining the phe-
nomena of life by a vital fluid is only increasing the intricacy of
the subject by an unfounded hypothesis, and always reminds
me of Mr. Dugald Stewart’s remark, – that
tain power which we term life, and the object of physiology is
merely to observe its effects, just as it is the object of chemistry
to observe the circumstances of the affinity of different bodies and
no more a subject for philosophical inquiry than the essential
nature of attraction or of matter. To attempt explaining the phe-
nomena of life by a vital fluid is only increasing the intricacy of
the subject by an unfounded hypothesis, and always reminds
me of Mr. Dugald Stewart’s remark, – that
“There is even some
reason for doubting, from the crude speculations on medical
and chemical subjects which are daily offered to the public, whe-
ther it (the proper mode of studying nature) be yet understood
so completely as is commonly imagined, and whether a fuller
illustration of the rules of philosophising, than Bacon or his fol-
lowers have given, might not be useful even to physical in-
quirers.”
Elements of the
Philosophy of the Human Mind. Vol. i. p. 8.
tain power which we term life, and the object of physiology is
merely to observe its effects, just as it is the object of chemistry
to observe the circumstances of the affinity of different bodies and
[48]
of physics to observe other
phenomena of matter, without vainly
speculating on the essence of affinity or the essence of matter, to
comprehend which our faculties are in their nature incompetent.
By attributing life, the power of attraction, &c. to subtle and
mobile fluids, we not only do not advance a single step, for we
have still to explain what these fluids are and how they obtain
their powers, just as we had before in regard to common matter,
but we make the additional mysteries of their being united with
ordinary matter, and so united that life appears a power possessed
by it. The editors of a medical review have in vain searched Mr.
Hunter’s works for such an hypothesis,
had no better success,
misunderstood by those who constitute him its patron.
ing for a moment that life depends on a peculiar fine fluid, we
have still to account for mind, because life is not mind, – a cab-
bage is as much gifted with life as the wisest man.
speculating on the essence of affinity or the essence of matter, to
comprehend which our faculties are in their nature incompetent.
By attributing life, the power of attraction, &c. to subtle and
mobile fluids, we not only do not advance a single step, for we
have still to explain what these fluids are and how they obtain
their powers, just as we had before in regard to common matter,
but we make the additional mysteries of their being united with
ordinary matter, and so united that life appears a power possessed
by it. The editors of a medical review have in vain searched Mr.
Hunter’s works for such an hypothesis,
Annals of Medicine and
Surgery. 1817. p. 373. In the Treatise
on the Blood,
(p. 89 sq.) Mr. Hunter says
the materials of the brain; diffused through the body and even contained in the
blood.
This materia vitae is therefore pretty solid and no other than medullary matter.
Its diffusion through the body will not bear mentioning in the present day.
(p. 89 sq.) Mr. Hunter says
“Life is a property (not a subtle fluid) we do not un-This property he conceives to reside in a certain matter similar to
derstand.”
the materials of the brain; diffused through the body and even contained in the
blood.
“The brain,”he adds,
“is a mass of this matter, not diffused through
any thing, for the purpose of that thing, but constituting an organ in itself.”
This materia vitae is therefore pretty solid and no other than medullary matter.
Its diffusion through the body will not bear mentioning in the present day.
had no better success,
Lectures on the
Physiology, Zoology, and Natural History of Man. p.
84.
misunderstood by those who constitute him its patron.
J. Abernethy, Lectures
delivered before the Royal College of Surgeons.
1814.
ing for a moment that life depends on a peculiar fine fluid, we
have still to account for mind, because life is not mind, – a cab-
bage is as much gifted with life as the wisest man.
We have reason to believe that life never originates, but was
granted at the creation, and is communicated to assimilated mat-
ter and propagated from parent to offspring (622. B.); it is the
property of organised systems, producing various effects by
various kinds of organisation, but not quite peculiar to organised
matter, because capable of being possessed by matter in a fluid
state.
granted at the creation, and is communicated to assimilated mat-
ter and propagated from parent to offspring (622. B.); it is the
property of organised systems, producing various effects by
various kinds of organisation, but not quite peculiar to organised
matter, because capable of being possessed by matter in a fluid
state.
As the fluids which form the embryo must be
endowed with life, orga-
nisation cannot be the cause of life; but in truth organisation is the effect of
life, although when produced it becomes an instrument of life. The errone-
neousness of the French doctrine to which Mr. Lawrence is a proselyte (Two
Introductory Lectures, &c.), – that
refuted in the Annals of Medicine and Surgery, (1816, Sept. p. 346. 386.) and
subsequently by the Christian advocate of the University of Cambridge in his
Remarks on Modern Scepticism, &c. The error appears to have arisen in some
measure from the want of definition – the word life being used sometimes pro-
perly for the power, sometimes improperly for the result. Even if the re-
sult of life – the functions of a part, should be called its life, life could not be
said to be the result of organisation, but of a power to which organisation is an
instrument.
nisation cannot be the cause of life; but in truth organisation is the effect of
life, although when produced it becomes an instrument of life. The errone-
neousness of the French doctrine to which Mr. Lawrence is a proselyte (Two
Introductory Lectures, &c.), – that
“life is the result of organisation,”was
refuted in the Annals of Medicine and Surgery, (1816, Sept. p. 346. 386.) and
subsequently by the Christian advocate of the University of Cambridge in his
Remarks on Modern Scepticism, &c. The error appears to have arisen in some
measure from the want of definition – the word life being used sometimes pro-
perly for the power, sometimes improperly for the result. Even if the re-
sult of life – the functions of a part, should be called its life, life could not be
said to be the result of organisation, but of a power to which organisation is an
instrument.
[49]
The animal functions demonstrate mind. This is
seated in
the brain, to which the spinal marrow, nerves, and voluntary
muscles are subservient. Mind is the functional power of the
living brain. As I cannot conceive life any more than the power
of attraction unless possessed by matter, so I cannot conceive
mind unless possessed by a brain endowed with life. (666. F).
I speak of terrestrial or animal mind; with angelic and divine
nature we have nothing to do, and of them we know, in the
same respects, nothing. To call the human mind positively a
ray of the divinity, (Divinae particula aurae,
tus, Ex universa mente delibatus
sense. Brutes are as really endowed with mind, – with a con-
sciousness of personality, with feelings, desire, and will, as man.
Every child is conscious that it thinks with its head, and common
language designates this part as the seat of mind.
shows that superiority of mind in the animal creation is exactly
commensurate with superiority of brain (666. F); that activity
of mind and of brain are coequal; and that as long as the brain
is endowed with life and remains uninjured, it, like all other
the brain, to which the spinal marrow, nerves, and voluntary
muscles are subservient. Mind is the functional power of the
living brain. As I cannot conceive life any more than the power
of attraction unless possessed by matter, so I cannot conceive
mind unless possessed by a brain endowed with life. (666. F).
I speak of terrestrial or animal mind; with angelic and divine
nature we have nothing to do, and of them we know, in the
same respects, nothing. To call the human mind positively a
ray of the divinity, (Divinae particula aurae,
Horace.
tus, Ex universa mente delibatus
Cicero, De Senectute & Quaest.
Tuscul.
sense. Brutes are as really endowed with mind, – with a con-
sciousness of personality, with feelings, desire, and will, as man.
Every child is conscious that it thinks with its head, and common
language designates this part as the seat of mind.
A stupid person is honoured with the
expressions numb-scull, thick-head,
addle-pated, shallow-pated, badly furnished in the upper story; a clever person
with strong-headed, long-headed, having plenty of brains; a madman is said
to be wrong or cracked in the head, touched in the brain, &c. &c.
addle-pated, shallow-pated, badly furnished in the upper story; a clever person
with strong-headed, long-headed, having plenty of brains; a madman is said
to be wrong or cracked in the head, touched in the brain, &c. &c.
shows that superiority of mind in the animal creation is exactly
commensurate with superiority of brain (666. F); that activity
of mind and of brain are coequal; and that as long as the brain
is endowed with life and remains uninjured, it, like all other
[50]
organs, can perform its functions, and mind
continues; but, as
in all other organs, when its life ceases, its power to perform its
function ceases, and the mind ceases; when causes of disturbance
affect it, the mind is affected; if originally constituted defec-
tive, the mind is defective; if fully developed and properly acted
on, the mind is vigorous; accordingly as it varies with age, is
the mind also varied, – the mind of the child is weak and ex-
citable, of the adult vigorous and firm, and of the old man
weak and dull, exactly like the body;If of children it is said, – The old man, –
mind of an individual agrees with the character of his body,
being equally excitable, languid, or torpid, evidently because
the brain is of the same character as the rest of the body to
which it belongs, – the female mind exceeds the male in excita-
bility as much as her body;
hereditary,
Medicinae Theoreticae. So true is the verseEt patrum in natos abeunt, cum semine, mores.
in all other organs, when its life ceases, its power to perform its
function ceases, and the mind ceases; when causes of disturbance
affect it, the mind is affected; if originally constituted defec-
tive, the mind is defective; if fully developed and properly acted
on, the mind is vigorous; accordingly as it varies with age, is
the mind also varied, – the mind of the child is weak and ex-
citable, of the adult vigorous and firm, and of the old man
weak and dull, exactly like the body;
“Inter se quas pro levibus noxiis iras gerunt?
Quapropter? quia enim qui eos gubernat animus, infirmum gerunt.”
Terence. Hecyra.
“Res omnes timide gelidequc ministrat,
Dilator, spe longus, iners–”
Horace. Ars Poetica.
or in the plainer language of Shakspeare,
Hamlet. Act. 2. Sc. 2.
“Old men have grey beards,
their faces are wrinkled, their eyes purging thick amber and plum-tree gum,
and they have a plentiful lack of wit, together with most weak hams.”
Mr. Dugald Stewart allows that
“In the case of old men, it is generallyOutlines of Moral Philosophy. p. 233.
found that a decline of the faculties keeps pace with the decay of bodily health
and vigour. The few exceptions that occur to the universality of this fact only
prove that there are some diseases fatal to life which do not injure those parts
of the body with which the intellectual operations are more immediately con-
nected.”
“Praeterea gigni pariter cum corpore, et una
Crescere sentimus, pariterque senescere, mentem.”
Lucretius. lib. i.
mind of an individual agrees with the character of his body,
being equally excitable, languid, or torpid, evidently because
the brain is of the same character as the rest of the body to
which it belongs, – the female mind exceeds the male in excita-
bility as much as her body;
“Mulieres sunt, ferme ut pueri, levi sententia.”– Terence. Hecyra.
hereditary,
“Parentibus liberi similes sunt non vultum modo et corporis formam, sed– Gregory, Conspectus
animi indolem, et virtutes, et vitia. – Claudia gens diu Romae floruit impigra,
ferox, superba: Eadem illachrymabilem Tiberium, tristissimum Tyrannum
produxit: tandem in immanem Caligulam et Claudium, et Agrippinam, ipsum-
que demum Neronem, post sexcentos annos desitura.”
Medicinae Theoreticae. So true is the verse
[51]
our other qualities,
corporeal conditions; and the mind is often
disordered upon the disappearance of a bodily complaint, just as
other organs, besides the brain, are affected under similar cir-
cumstances, – the retrocession of an eruption may affect the
lungs, causing asthma, the bowels, causing enteritis, or the
brain, causing insanity; phthisis and insanity sometimes alter-
nate with each other, just like affections of other organs. The
argument of Bishop Butler, that the soul is immortal and in-
dependent of matter because in fatal diseases the mind often
remains vigorous to the last,
function will remain vigorous to the last if the organ which
performs it is not the seat of the disease, nor much connected
by sympathy or in other modes with the organ which is the seat
of the disease, – the stomach often calls regularly for food and
digests it vigorously, while the lungs are almost completely con-
sumed by ulceration. All the cases that are adduced to prove
the little dependence of the mind on the brain, are adduced in
opposition to the myriads of others that daily occur in the usual
course of nature, and are evidently regarded as extraordinary
cases by those who bring them forward. An exact parallel to
each may be found in affections of every other organ, and each
admits of so easy an explanation that it may be always truly said,
disordered upon the disappearance of a bodily complaint, just as
other organs, besides the brain, are affected under similar cir-
cumstances, – the retrocession of an eruption may affect the
lungs, causing asthma, the bowels, causing enteritis, or the
brain, causing insanity; phthisis and insanity sometimes alter-
nate with each other, just like affections of other organs. The
argument of Bishop Butler, that the soul is immortal and in-
dependent of matter because in fatal diseases the mind often
remains vigorous to the last,
The Analogy of Religion,
natural and revealed, to the Constitution and
Course of Nature. By Joseph Butler, LL. D. Lord Bishop of Durham. p. 33.
Course of Nature. By Joseph Butler, LL. D. Lord Bishop of Durham. p. 33.
function will remain vigorous to the last if the organ which
performs it is not the seat of the disease, nor much connected
by sympathy or in other modes with the organ which is the seat
of the disease, – the stomach often calls regularly for food and
digests it vigorously, while the lungs are almost completely con-
sumed by ulceration. All the cases that are adduced to prove
the little dependence of the mind on the brain, are adduced in
opposition to the myriads of others that daily occur in the usual
course of nature, and are evidently regarded as extraordinary
cases by those who bring them forward. An exact parallel to
each may be found in affections of every other organ, and each
admits of so easy an explanation that it may be always truly said,
“Exceptio probat regulam.”
I will not insult the understanding of my
readers by showing that we have
no authentic instance of the real absence of brain in the cranium of a being
possessed of a mind. The records of medicine no less teem with wonders than
those of theology. The miracles of the Fathers and of the Romish Church
may be matched by cases not only of mind without brain, but of human im-
pregnation without males or by males without testes, and of human foetuses
nourished without communication with the mother.
no authentic instance of the real absence of brain in the cranium of a being
possessed of a mind. The records of medicine no less teem with wonders than
those of theology. The miracles of the Fathers and of the Romish Church
may be matched by cases not only of mind without brain, but of human im-
pregnation without males or by males without testes, and of human foetuses
nourished without communication with the mother.
In most cases
where the mind is said to have been vigorous
when the state of
the body at large or of the brain alone rendered the perfect performance of the
cerebral functions improbable in the eyes of the relaters, I believe the mental
power has even been greatly overrated, – that because the individual has merely
talked collectively he has been imagined sufficient for the exertions of his best
health.
the body at large or of the brain alone rendered the perfect performance of the
cerebral functions improbable in the eyes of the relaters, I believe the mental
power has even been greatly overrated, – that because the individual has merely
talked collectively he has been imagined sufficient for the exertions of his best
health.
Those who thus attempt to prove the substantial
distinctness of the mind and
brain, forget that these arguments are equally strong against what they generally
admit, – the connection of the mind and brain, and are therefore grounded on
what, if true, were violations of the course of nature.
brain, forget that these arguments are equally strong against what they generally
admit, – the connection of the mind and brain, and are therefore grounded on
what, if true, were violations of the course of nature.
[52]
In contending that the mind is a power of the living brain,
and the exercise of it the functions of that organ, I contend for
merely a physical fact, and no Christian who has just conceptions
of the Author of Nature will hesitate to look boldly at nature as
she is, lest he should discover facts opposite to the pronunciations
of revelation. For the word and the works of the Almighty can-
not contradict each other. Lord Bacon accordingly, in a very
memorable part of his writings, directs the physical enquirer to
be uninfluenced by religious opinions,
dently truth is pursued the sooner will it be gained, and the
sooner will the real meaning of the divine statement of natural
things, and its identity with physical fact, be established.
and the exercise of it the functions of that organ, I contend for
merely a physical fact, and no Christian who has just conceptions
of the Author of Nature will hesitate to look boldly at nature as
she is, lest he should discover facts opposite to the pronunciations
of revelation. For the word and the works of the Almighty can-
not contradict each other. Lord Bacon accordingly, in a very
memorable part of his writings, directs the physical enquirer to
be uninfluenced by religious opinions,
Si quis animum
diligentius advertat, non minus periculi naturali philoso-
phiae ex istiusmodi fallaci in iniquo foedere, quam ex apertis inimicitiis,
imminere. Tali enim foedere et societate accepta, in philosophia tantum com-
prehendi, aucta autem, vel addita, vel in melius mutata, etiam severius et per-
tinacius excludi. Denique versus incrementa et novas veluti oras et regiones
philosophiae, omnia ex parte religionis, pravarum suspicionum et impotentis,
fastidii plena esse. Alios siquidem simplicius subvereri, ne forte altior in na-
turam inquisitio ultra datum et concessum sobrietatis terminum penetret,
&c. &c. Quare satis constabat in hujusmodi opinionibus multum infirmitatis,
quin et invidiae et fermenti non parum subesse, &c. – Cogitata et Visa. p. 167.
8vo. edition.
phiae ex istiusmodi fallaci in iniquo foedere, quam ex apertis inimicitiis,
imminere. Tali enim foedere et societate accepta, in philosophia tantum com-
prehendi, aucta autem, vel addita, vel in melius mutata, etiam severius et per-
tinacius excludi. Denique versus incrementa et novas veluti oras et regiones
philosophiae, omnia ex parte religionis, pravarum suspicionum et impotentis,
fastidii plena esse. Alios siquidem simplicius subvereri, ne forte altior in na-
turam inquisitio ultra datum et concessum sobrietatis terminum penetret,
&c. &c. Quare satis constabat in hujusmodi opinionibus multum infirmitatis,
quin et invidiae et fermenti non parum subesse, &c. – Cogitata et Visa. p. 167.
8vo. edition.
dently truth is pursued the sooner will it be gained, and the
sooner will the real meaning of the divine statement of natural
things, and its identity with physical fact, be established.
The assertion, however, that the mind is a power of the living
brain, is not an assertion that it is material, for a power or
property of matter cannot be matter.
brain, is not an assertion that it is material, for a power or
property of matter cannot be matter.
Neither is it an assertion, that this power cannot be a some-
[53]
thing immortal,
subtle, immaterial, diffused through and con-
nected with the brain. A physical enquirer has to do with only
what he observes. He finds this power, but attempts not to
explain it, – he simply says the living brain has this power, and
leaves others at liberty to fancy an hypothesis of this power
being a subtle, immaterial, immortal substance, exactly as they
fancy life to be a subtle fluid, or perhaps, though very extra-
ordinarily, the same subtle fluid (if subtlety is immateriality and
immortality), elucidating the subject no more than in the case of
life, and equally increasing the number of its difficulties,
by the hypothesis into the Romish church need not be quoted. A French mid-
wife acquaints us that he baptised a little abortion of the magnitude of a beetle,
and another of the same breadth but longer. (De la Motte, Traitè des accouche-
mens. p. 201. p. 244.) A good idea of what follows in its train may be collected
from Dante’s tiresome account of the introduction of the soul into the body,
beginning,
It is one parent of necromancy, of the belief in ghosts, and of all the popish
trumpery respecting purgatory.
though we were not created beings, or not altogether ignorant
what matter is, or of what it is capable and incapable; as though
matter exhibited nothing but extension, attraction, and inertness;
and as though the Almighty could not, if it seemed good to him,
endow it with the superaddition of life, and even of feeling and
will.
nected with the brain. A physical enquirer has to do with only
what he observes. He finds this power, but attempts not to
explain it, – he simply says the living brain has this power, and
leaves others at liberty to fancy an hypothesis of this power
being a subtle, immaterial, immortal substance, exactly as they
fancy life to be a subtle fluid, or perhaps, though very extra-
ordinarily, the same subtle fluid (if subtlety is immateriality and
immortality), elucidating the subject no more than in the case of
life, and equally increasing the number of its difficulties,
Locke, (Second Reply to the Bishop of Worcester. p.
477. 8vo. edition.)
in disparaging philosophical reasons for the immortality of the soul, says,
in disparaging philosophical reasons for the immortality of the soul, says,
“Dr. Cudworth affirms that there was never any of the ancients before Chris-Sterne’s fine ridicule of the absurdities introduced
tianity that held the soul’s future permanency after death, who did not like-
wise assert its pre-existence.”
by the hypothesis into the Romish church need not be quoted. A French mid-
wife acquaints us that he baptised a little abortion of the magnitude of a beetle,
and another of the same breadth but longer. (De la Motte, Traitè des accouche-
mens. p. 201. p. 244.) A good idea of what follows in its train may be collected
from Dante’s tiresome account of the introduction of the soul into the body,
beginning,
‘Sangue perfetto che mai non si beve, &c.’– Purgatorio. Canto xxv.
It is one parent of necromancy, of the belief in ghosts, and of all the popish
trumpery respecting purgatory.
though we were not created beings, or not altogether ignorant
what matter is, or of what it is capable and incapable; as though
matter exhibited nothing but extension, attraction, and inertness;
and as though the Almighty could not, if it seemed good to him,
endow it with the superaddition of life, and even of feeling and
will.
“All the difficulties that are raised against the thinking of matter, fromThe faculties of brutes prove
our ignorance or narrow conceptions, stand not at all in the way of the power
of God, if he pleases to ordain it so.”
“eitherLocke, Second Reply to the Bishop of Worcester. p. 466. 8vo. edit.
that God can and doth give to some parcels of matter a power of perception
and thinking, or that all animals have immaterial and consequently immortal
souls as well as men; and to say that fleas and mites, &c. have immortal souls
as well as men, will possibly be looked on as going a great way to serve an
hypothesis.”
[54]
Nor does this assertion imply that the resurrection from the
dead is impossible or even improbable. The physical enquirer,
finding the mind a power of the brain, and abstaining from
hypothesis, must conclude that, in the present order of things,
when the brain ceases to live the power necessarily ceases, – that,
in the language of scripture, Dust we are and unto dust we all
return, – that our being is utterly extinguished and we go back
to the insensibility of the earth whence we were taken.
consciousness of personality can afford no reason for imagining
ourselves immortal and distinct from earth, more than brutes,
for this the fly possesses equally with the philosopher about
whose head it buzzes.Θῆρας ὁμῦ είλεῦντα, κατ' ἀσφοδελὁν λειμῶνα Τὺς αὐτὸς
κατέπεφνεν ἐν οἰοπολοισιν ὄρεσσι.
the sublime reach of our acuteness, the great improvableness of
our characters, –
dead is impossible or even improbable. The physical enquirer,
finding the mind a power of the brain, and abstaining from
hypothesis, must conclude that, in the present order of things,
when the brain ceases to live the power necessarily ceases, – that,
in the language of scripture, Dust we are and unto dust we all
return, – that our being is utterly extinguished and we go back
to the insensibility of the earth whence we were taken.
Miscellaneous Tracts, &c. by Richard Watson,
D.D.F.R.S. Lord Bishop
of Llandaff. Sermon iii. p. 399 sq.
of Llandaff. Sermon iii. p. 399 sq.
consciousness of personality can afford no reason for imagining
ourselves immortal and distinct from earth, more than brutes,
for this the fly possesses equally with the philosopher about
whose head it buzzes.
Heathens
have, very consistently with this reason for immortality, given
it
to the fancied souls of animals: Ulysses is made by Homer to behold the shade
of Orion –
to the fancied souls of animals: Ulysses is made by Homer to behold the shade
of Orion –
Odyss. A. 571.
the sublime reach of our acuteness, the great improvableness of
our characters, –
“Our innate pleasing hope, our fond desire,
Our longing after immortality,
Our secret dread and inward horror of falling into nought,”
Addison, Cato. See a full enumeration in
Mr. Dugald Stewart’s Outlines,
&c.p. 235 sq.
&c.p. 235 sq.
completely harmonise with a life hereafter, but fall
so short of
proof as to have left the wisest of antiquity, – Solomon, Socrates,
Cicero, &c. in uncertainty,
us to our pristine elements. The hope of immortality which
such reflections, and possibly also the tradition of Enoch’s
translation, inspired,
thing in some way or other, first, I apprehend, made men
attempt to find, in the imagined ethereal essence of the soul, a
proof as to have left the wisest of antiquity, – Solomon, Socrates,
Cicero, &c. in uncertainty,
Bishop Watson, l.c. Sermon vi. p. 504
sq.
us to our pristine elements. The hope of immortality which
such reflections, and possibly also the tradition of Enoch’s
translation, inspired,
Bishop Watson, l.c. 499.
thing in some way or other, first, I apprehend, made men
attempt to find, in the imagined ethereal essence of the soul, a
[55]
reason for our not totally perishing as our senses would lead us
to suppose. But because we refuse to listen to a mere hypo-
thesis we are not to deny the resurrection. For if a divine
revelation pronounce that there shall be another order of things
in which the mind shall exist again, we ought firmly to believe
it, because neither our experience nor our reason can inform us
what will be hereafter, and we must be senseless to start
objections on a point beyond the penetration of our faculties.
standing. iv. ch 18.
We have a Divine revelation which so pronounces, – not that we
are naturally immortal, but that
have our being utterly extinguished, and in another order of
things, – when the fashion of this world shall have passed away
and time shall be no more, that in Christ (by the free, additional,
gift of God, granted through the obedience of our Saviour) we
shall all again be made alive. A miracle would not have been
necessary to convince us of a truth discoverable by sense and
reason. That the promises of revelation are the proper and only
foundation of our hopes of immortality, was the opinion of the
late Regius Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge,
whose gigantic intellect and sincere love of truth render his
opinions weightier than the decrees of councils. –
to suppose. But because we refuse to listen to a mere hypo-
thesis we are not to deny the resurrection. For if a divine
revelation pronounce that there shall be another order of things
in which the mind shall exist again, we ought firmly to believe
it, because neither our experience nor our reason can inform us
what will be hereafter, and we must be senseless to start
objections on a point beyond the penetration of our faculties.
“Nor can we be obliged, where we have the clear and evident sentence of– Locke, Essay on Human Under-
reason, to quit it for the contrary opinion, under a pretence that it is a matter
of faith, which can have no authority against the plain dictates of reason. But
there are many things wherein we have very imperfect notions, or none at all;
and other things, of whose past, present, or future existence, by the actual use
of our faculties, we can have no knowledge; these, as being beyond the discovery
of our natural faculties, and above reason, are, when revealed, the proper
matter of faith. Thus, that part of the angels rebelled against God, and thereby
lost their first happy state, and that the dead shall rise and live again; these and
the like, being beyond the discovery of reason, are purely matters of faith, with
which reason has nothing directly to do.”
standing. iv. ch 18.
Reason’s province is only to examine the proofs of the authenticity
of reve-
lation, and faith must thus be founded on reason.
lation, and faith must thus be founded on reason.
We have a Divine revelation which so pronounces, – not that we
are naturally immortal, but that
“in Adam (by nature) all die,”–
have our being utterly extinguished, and in another order of
things, – when the fashion of this world shall have passed away
and time shall be no more, that in Christ (by the free, additional,
gift of God, granted through the obedience of our Saviour) we
shall all again be made alive. A miracle would not have been
necessary to convince us of a truth discoverable by sense and
reason. That the promises of revelation are the proper and only
foundation of our hopes of immortality, was the opinion of the
late Regius Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge,
whose gigantic intellect and sincere love of truth render his
opinions weightier than the decrees of councils. –
“I have nosays he,
hope of a future existence,”
“except that which is
[56]
grounded on the truth of Christianity.”
Anecdotes of the Life
of Richard Watson, D.D.F.R.S. late Lord Bishop
of Llandaff. – Vol. i. p. 107. See also a very decisive passage, beginning,
of Llandaff. – Vol. i. p. 107. See also a very decisive passage, beginning,
“Asin his Apology for the Bible. Letter x. near the end.
a Deist I have little expectation; as a Christian I have no doubt, of a future
state,”
Locke argues,
“that all the great ends of religion and morality are secured– First Reply. p. 34.
barely by the immortality of the soul, without a necessary supposition that it is
immaterial.”
Mr. Dugald Stewart concedes that
upon this subject,
vol. ii. p. 15.
“the proper use of the doctrine of the im-l.c. p. 227. The celebrated Dr. Rush, of America, remarks
materiality of the soul is not to demonstrate that the soul is physically and ne-
cessarily immortal.”
upon this subject,
“that the writers in favour of the immortality of the soul– Medical Inquiries and Observations.
have done that truth great injury by connecting it necessarily with its immate-
riality. The immortality of the soul depends upon the will of the Deity, and
not upon the supposed properties of spirit. Matter is in its own nature as im-
mortal as spirit. It is resolvable by heat and moisture into a variety of forms;
but it requires the same almighty hand to annihilate it, that it did to create it.
I know of no arguments to prove the immortality of the soul but such as we
derive from the Christian revelation.”
vol. ii. p. 15.
pitied who think there can be any thing like an argument against
a future life in another order of things, if declared by revelation,
I am deeply hurt that others should think it necessary to attempt
rendering the pronunciations of scripture more probable by an
hypothesis which is at best but the remains of unenlightened
times,
The more
uninformed the age, the greater the disposition to explain
every
thing. The savage personifies the winds and the heavenly bodies; the ancients
fancied all matter endowed with a spirit (spiritus intus alit). Philo and Origen
maintain that the stars are so many souls, incorruptible and immortal. In old
modern writings, even in those of the father of experiment and observation, –
Lord Bacon, the properties of matter are referred to spirits: – an acid acts by its
spirit. All these notions still exist among the vulgar; and the last remaining
among the better informed, though it too is rapdly dying away, relates to mind.
Those who upbraid others for refusing their assent to this hypothesis, may
recollect that Anaxagoras and many more were accused of atheism and impiety,
because they denied that the heavenly bodies were animated and intelligent.
Even in the last reign some viewed the Newtonian doctrines as irreligious.
Materialist is as good a word as any other to brand those with from whom we
differ, but materialism in its true acceptation signifies the preposterous doctrine
of no first cause, – that all has been produced ex fortuita atomorum collisione.
The whole tenor of Scripture implies that we are bodies endowed with certain
properties; and those passages from which our being a distinct immaterial sub-
stance is inferred, may be easily explained by the figurative style of the sacred
writings, by the necessary adoption of the language of the times, and by the
influence of the national opinions and prejudices of the writers on their mode
of expressing divine truths. Without due allowance, we might deem it impious
to deny that
as such clave unto Gehazi; that Adam surely died on the very day he tasted
the forbidden fruit; that the winds possessed sense when Christ said, Peace, be
still; and that Saul’s melancholy and the cases of insanity and epilepsy related
in the New Testament were possessions by demons, which are pronounced in
another part to be nothing in the world. And on these points I strongly recom-
mend the study of the Rev. Hugh Farmer’s original and admirable works, espe-
cially his Essays on the Demoniacs of the New Testament, and on Christ’s
Temptation. Without due allowance, what absurdities might be inferred from
the use of the word heart?
thing. The savage personifies the winds and the heavenly bodies; the ancients
fancied all matter endowed with a spirit (spiritus intus alit). Philo and Origen
maintain that the stars are so many souls, incorruptible and immortal. In old
modern writings, even in those of the father of experiment and observation, –
Lord Bacon, the properties of matter are referred to spirits: – an acid acts by its
spirit. All these notions still exist among the vulgar; and the last remaining
among the better informed, though it too is rapdly dying away, relates to mind.
Those who upbraid others for refusing their assent to this hypothesis, may
recollect that Anaxagoras and many more were accused of atheism and impiety,
because they denied that the heavenly bodies were animated and intelligent.
Even in the last reign some viewed the Newtonian doctrines as irreligious.
Materialist is as good a word as any other to brand those with from whom we
differ, but materialism in its true acceptation signifies the preposterous doctrine
of no first cause, – that all has been produced ex fortuita atomorum collisione.
The whole tenor of Scripture implies that we are bodies endowed with certain
properties; and those passages from which our being a distinct immaterial sub-
stance is inferred, may be easily explained by the figurative style of the sacred
writings, by the necessary adoption of the language of the times, and by the
influence of the national opinions and prejudices of the writers on their mode
of expressing divine truths. Without due allowance, we might deem it impious
to deny that
“the round world cannot be moved;”that the sun
“pursues itsthat Naaman’s leprosy (a condition of body) was a real substance, and
course;”
as such clave unto Gehazi; that Adam surely died on the very day he tasted
the forbidden fruit; that the winds possessed sense when Christ said, Peace, be
still; and that Saul’s melancholy and the cases of insanity and epilepsy related
in the New Testament were possessions by demons, which are pronounced in
another part to be nothing in the world. And on these points I strongly recom-
mend the study of the Rev. Hugh Farmer’s original and admirable works, espe-
cially his Essays on the Demoniacs of the New Testament, and on Christ’s
Temptation. Without due allowance, what absurdities might be inferred from
the use of the word heart?
[57]
which
reflect that the belief of an immaterial substance removes no ima-
gined difficulty, as the resurrection will be positively of body, and
that therefore our minds will appear as much a property of body
hereafter as at present. The sound and excellent Paley, following
Locke who shews in his third letter to Bishop Stillingfleet that the
Scriptures do not say our identical bodies (σώματα) will be raised,
but merely οἱ νεκροὶ or πὰντες, with bodies, draws, in his sermon
on the state after death, the following conclusions from various
intimations in the New Testament: –
“has brought life and immortality to light.”
2
Timothy. i. 10.
reflect that the belief of an immaterial substance removes no ima-
gined difficulty, as the resurrection will be positively of body, and
that therefore our minds will appear as much a property of body
hereafter as at present. The sound and excellent Paley, following
Locke who shews in his third letter to Bishop Stillingfleet that the
Scriptures do not say our identical bodies (σώματα) will be raised,
but merely οἱ νεκροὶ or πὰντες, with bodies, draws, in his sermon
on the state after death, the following conclusions from various
intimations in the New Testament: –
“First, that (at the resurrection) we shall have bodies.
“2. That they will be so far different from our present bodies,
as to be suited, by that difference, to the state and life into which
they are to enter, agreeably to that rule which prevails throughout
universal nature, that the body of every being is suited to its
state, and that when it changes its state it changes its body.
[58]
“3. That it is a question by which we need not be at all dis-
turbed whether the bodies with which we shall arise be new
bodies, or the same bodies under a new form; for,
“4. No alteration will hinder us from remaining the same,
provided we are sensible and conscious that we are so, any more
than the changes which our visible person undergoes even in
this life, and which from infancy to manhood are undoubtedly
very great, hinder us from being the same, to ourselves and in
ourselves, and to all intents and purposes whatsoever.
Lastly, That though from the imperfection of our faculties,
we neither are, nor without a constant miracle upon our minds,
could be made able to comprehend the nature of our future bodies,
yet we are assured that the change will be infinitely beneficial;
that our new bodies will be infinitely superior to those which we
carry about with us in our present state.”
Sermons on several Subjects, by the late Rev.
W. Paley, D.D.S. 3. p. 96.
These are a small body of divinity, and having been bequeathed by him to his
parishioners, probably contain his mature convictions.
These are a small body of divinity, and having been bequeathed by him to his
parishioners, probably contain his mature convictions.
It is the doctrine of the Church of England that
Church acknowledges the human nature of Christ, it believes that he ascended
into heaven and there sits, with
“all men shall rise withEnoch and Elijah were translated bodily. Nay, as far as our
their bodies.”
Church acknowledges the human nature of Christ, it believes that he ascended
into heaven and there sits, with
“his body, with flesh, bones, and all things(Art. IV.)
appertaining to the perfection of man’s nature.”
The Archdeacon’s fourth conclusion removes an objection that
might suggest itself to some. St. Paul declares the resurrection
to be
the enquiry
I wish to touch with modesty and reverence, and if I have written
a syllable that can be proved contrary to Scripture or to the Arti-
cles of the Church of England, I acknowledge it false and declare
it unsaid. The view of nature is really a revelation, and cannot
without impiety be thought contradicted by any inspired declara-
tion. I think with Bishop Watson that the farther general science
extends as years pass on, the better will the volumes of our faith
be understood. Next to the irreligious lives of many professed
might suggest itself to some. St. Paul declares the resurrection
to be
“a mystery:”it will in truth be a miracle, and vain were
the enquiry
“how can these things be?”On these subjects
I wish to touch with modesty and reverence, and if I have written
a syllable that can be proved contrary to Scripture or to the Arti-
cles of the Church of England, I acknowledge it false and declare
it unsaid. The view of nature is really a revelation, and cannot
without impiety be thought contradicted by any inspired declara-
tion. I think with Bishop Watson that the farther general science
extends as years pass on, the better will the volumes of our faith
be understood. Next to the irreligious lives of many professed
[59]
Christians, nothing has
contributed more to the infidelity of
thoughtless men than the pretence that various opinions are
necessarily connected with the grand doctrines of salvation.
The elucidation of the first chapter of Genesis by geology, and
the erroneous views taken of it through ignorance of science
by a truly good man, were lately displayed in an able article of
the Quarterly Review.
thoughtless men than the pretence that various opinions are
necessarily connected with the grand doctrines of salvation.
The elucidation of the first chapter of Genesis by geology, and
the erroneous views taken of it through ignorance of science
by a truly good man, were lately displayed in an able article of
the Quarterly Review.
[60]
SECT. VII.
ON THE MOTION OF THE BLOOD.
84. The blood, to whose great and multifarious im-
portance in the system we have slightly alluded, (16)
is conveyed, with a few exceptions, (5) into the most
internal and extreme recesses. This is proved by the
minute injection of the vessels, and by the well known
fact of blood issuing from almost every part on the
slightest scratch.
portance in the system we have slightly alluded, (16)
is conveyed, with a few exceptions, (5) into the most
internal and extreme recesses. This is proved by the
minute injection of the vessels, and by the well known
fact of blood issuing from almost every part on the
slightest scratch.
85. This purple fluid does not, like an Euripus, ebb
and flow in the same parts, as the ancients imagined,
but pursues a circular course; so that being propelled
from the heart into the arteries, it is distributed through-
out the body, and returns again to the heart through
the veins.
and flow in the same parts, as the ancients imagined,
but pursues a circular course; so that being propelled
from the heart into the arteries, it is distributed through-
out the body, and returns again to the heart through
the veins.
Among warm-blooded
animals, the egg, especially at the fourth and fifth day
of incubation, if placed under a simple microscope, such as the Lyonetian, is
most proper to demonstrate the circulation.
of incubation, if placed under a simple microscope, such as the Lyonetian, is
most proper to demonstrate the circulation.
Among frogs, the most proper is the equuleus of Lieberkühn, described
in
the Mem. de l’Acad. de Berlin. 1745.
the Mem. de l’Acad. de Berlin. 1745.
86. We shall, therefore, say something at present
of the vessels which contain the blood; and afterwards,
of the powers by which they propel and receive it.
of the vessels which contain the blood; and afterwards,
of the powers by which they propel and receive it.
87. The vessels which receive the blood from the
heart and distribute it throughout the body, are termed
arteries. These are upon the whole less capacious than
heart and distribute it throughout the body, are termed
arteries. These are upon the whole less capacious than
[61]
the veins; but in adult and advanced age
especially,
of a texture far more solid and compact, very elastic
and strong.
of a texture far more solid and compact, very elastic
and strong.
88. The arteries consist of three coats:
For the various opinions respecting the number
and differences of the
arterial coats, consult among others Vinc. Malacarne, Della Osservat. in
Chirurgia. Turin. T. ii. p. 103.
arterial coats, consult among others Vinc. Malacarne, Della Osservat. in
Chirurgia. Turin. T. ii. p. 103.
I. The exterior, called, by Haller, the tunica cellu-
losa propria; by others, the nervous, cartilaginous, ten-
dinous, &c. It is composed of condensed cellular
membrane, externally more lax, internally more and
more compact: blood vessels are seen creeping upon
it:
losa propria; by others, the nervous, cartilaginous, ten-
dinous, &c. It is composed of condensed cellular
membrane, externally more lax, internally more and
more compact: blood vessels are seen creeping upon
it:
Fr. Ruysch, Respons. ad ep. problematicam.
iii. Also his Thesaur.
Anat. iv. tab. 3.
Anat. iv. tab. 3.
II. The middle coat consists of transverse fibres,
lunated or falciform, and almost of a fleshy nature:
hence this has the name of muscular coat, and ap-
pears to be the chief seat of the vital powers of the
arteries.
B.S. Albinus, Annot. Academ. L. iv. tab. 5.
fig. 1.
lunated or falciform, and almost of a fleshy nature:
hence this has the name of muscular coat, and ap-
pears to be the chief seat of the vital powers of the
arteries.
III. The inner coat lining the cavity of the arteries
is highly polished and smooth. This is much more dis-
tinct in the trunks and larger branches than in the
smaller vessels.
is highly polished and smooth. This is much more dis-
tinct in the trunks and larger branches than in the
smaller vessels.
89. Every artery originates either from the pulmo-
nary artery (the vena arteriosa of the ancients), which
proceeds from the anterior ventricle of the heart and
goes to the lungs; or from the aorta, which proceeds
from the posterior ventricle and is distributed through-
out the rest of the system. These trunks divide into
branches, and these again into twigs.
nary artery (the vena arteriosa of the ancients), which
proceeds from the anterior ventricle of the heart and
goes to the lungs; or from the aorta, which proceeds
from the posterior ventricle and is distributed through-
out the rest of the system. These trunks divide into
branches, and these again into twigs.
90. According to the commonly received opinion,
[62]
the united capacity of the branches is greater than that
of the trunk from which they arise. But I fear that
this is too general an assertion, and even that the mea-
sure of the diameter has been sometimes improperly
confounded with that of the area. I myself have never
been able to verify it, although my experiments have
been frequently repeated, and made, not on vessels in-
jected with wax, but on the undisturbed vessels of
recent subjects, on the innominata and its two branches
– the right carotid and subclavian, on the brachial and
its two branches – the radial and ulnar.
of the trunk from which they arise. But I fear that
this is too general an assertion, and even that the mea-
sure of the diameter has been sometimes improperly
confounded with that of the area. I myself have never
been able to verify it, although my experiments have
been frequently repeated, and made, not on vessels in-
jected with wax, but on the undisturbed vessels of
recent subjects, on the innominata and its two branches
– the right carotid and subclavian, on the brachial and
its two branches – the radial and ulnar.
See also J. Theod.
Van Der Kemp, De Vita. Edinb. 1782. 8vo. p.
51.
The inconstancy of the proportion between the capa-
city of the branches and trunks is clearly shewn by the
various size of the vessels under different circum-
stances, v.c. by the relative capacity of the inferior
thyroid artery in the infant and the adult; of the epi-
gastric artery and also of the uterine vessels in a virgin
and a woman far advanced in pregnancy; of the
omental vessels during the repletion and vacuity of the
stomach.
city of the branches and trunks is clearly shewn by the
various size of the vessels under different circum-
stances, v.c. by the relative capacity of the inferior
thyroid artery in the infant and the adult; of the epi-
gastric artery and also of the uterine vessels in a virgin
and a woman far advanced in pregnancy; of the
omental vessels during the repletion and vacuity of the
stomach.
This is remarkably observable in the adult stag, by comparing the
areae of
the external carotid and its branches, during the spring, before the horns have
attained their full growth but are still covered with their downy integuments
(called in our language, der Bast), with such as they are after this covering
has fallen off.
the external carotid and its branches, during the spring, before the horns have
attained their full growth but are still covered with their downy integuments
(called in our language, der Bast), with such as they are after this covering
has fallen off.
91. The arteries, after innumerable divisions and
important anastomoses
terminate at length in the beginning of the veins. By
this means, the blood is conveyed back again to the
heart. The distinction between artery and vein at the
point of union, is lost.
important anastomoses
Ant. Scarpa, Sull’
Aneurisma. Pav. 1804. fol. cap. 4.
terminate at length in the beginning of the veins. By
this means, the blood is conveyed back again to the
heart. The distinction between artery and vein at the
point of union, is lost.
[63]
In the present state of our knowledge, the umbilical
vessels are to be regarded as the only exception to the
termination of arteries in veins. We shall shew that
they are connected with the uterine vessels by the in-
tervention of a spongy substance, called parenchyma.
vessels are to be regarded as the only exception to the
termination of arteries in veins. We shall shew that
they are connected with the uterine vessels by the in-
tervention of a spongy substance, called parenchyma.
92. Another description of vessels arise universally
from the arteries and are called colourless, from not con-
taining pure blood, either on account of their minute-
ness, or of their specific irritability which causes them
to reject that fluid. These are the nutrient and other
secretory vessels: of which hereafter.
from the arteries and are called colourless, from not con-
taining pure blood, either on account of their minute-
ness, or of their specific irritability which causes them
to reject that fluid. These are the nutrient and other
secretory vessels: of which hereafter.
93. The blood conveyed from the heart by the arte-
ries is carried back by the veins.
ries is carried back by the veins.
These are very different in function and structure
from the arteries, excepting however the minutest of
both systems, which are indistinguishable.
from the arteries, excepting however the minutest of
both systems, which are indistinguishable.
94. The veins, excepting the pulmonary, are upon
the whole more capacious than the arteries; are more
ramified; much more irregular in their course and divi-
sion; in adult age, softer and more elastic, but still
very firm and remarkably expansile.
the whole more capacious than the arteries; are more
ramified; much more irregular in their course and divi-
sion; in adult age, softer and more elastic, but still
very firm and remarkably expansile.
95. Their coats are so much thinner that the
blood
appears through them. They are likewise less in num-
ber, being solely a cellular external, somewhat resem-
bling the nervous of the arteries; and a very polished
internal, also nearly agreeing with that of the arteries.
appears through them. They are likewise less in num-
ber, being solely a cellular external, somewhat resem-
bling the nervous of the arteries; and a very polished
internal, also nearly agreeing with that of the arteries.
A muscular coat exists in the largest trunks only.
96. The interior coat forms, in most veins of more
than a line in diameter, very beautiful valves, of easy
play, resembling bags, generally single, frequently dou-
ble, and sometimes treble, so placed, that the fundus
lies towards the origin of the vein, the limbus towards
the heart.
than a line in diameter, very beautiful valves, of easy
play, resembling bags, generally single, frequently dou-
ble, and sometimes treble, so placed, that the fundus
lies towards the origin of the vein, the limbus towards
the heart.
[64]
These valves are not found in some parts; not in the
brain, heart, lungs, secundines, nor in the system of
the vena portae.
brain, heart, lungs, secundines, nor in the system of
the vena portae.
97. The twigs, or, more properly, the radicles, of the
veins, unite into branches, and these again into six
principal trunks: viz. into the two cavae, superior and
inferior; and the four trunks of the pulmonary vein (the
arteria venosa of the ancients).
veins, unite into branches, and these again into six
principal trunks: viz. into the two cavae, superior and
inferior; and the four trunks of the pulmonary vein (the
arteria venosa of the ancients).
The vena portae is peculiar in this, that, having en-
tered into the liver, it ramifies like an artery, and its
extreme twigs pass into the radicles of the inferior
cava, thus coalescing into a trunk.
tered into the liver, it ramifies like an artery, and its
extreme twigs pass into the radicles of the inferior
cava, thus coalescing into a trunk.
98. That the blood may be properly distributed and
circulated through the arteries and veins, nature has
provided the heart,
the blood vessels unite, and which is the grand agent
and mover of the whole system, – supporting the chief
of the vital functions with a constant and truly wonder-
ful power, from the second or third week after concep-
tion to the last moment of existence.
circulated through the arteries and veins, nature has
provided the heart,
W. Cowper, Myotomia Reformata. (Posth.) Lond. 1724. Fol.
max.
Tab. xxxvi–xl.
Tab. xxxvi–xl.
the blood vessels unite, and which is the grand agent
and mover of the whole system, – supporting the chief
of the vital functions with a constant and truly wonder-
ful power, from the second or third week after concep-
tion to the last moment of existence.
99. The heart alternately receives and propels the
blood. Receiving it from the body by means of the
superior and inferior vena cava, and from its own sub-
stance through the common valvular
coronary veins, it conveys that fluid into the anterior
sinus and auricle; and thence into the corresponding
ventricle, which, as well as the auricle, communicates
blood. Receiving it from the body by means of the
superior and inferior vena cava, and from its own sub-
stance through the common valvular
Casp. Fr. Wolff on the origin of the large
coronary vein, Act. Acad.
Scient. Petropol. 1777. P.i.
Scient. Petropol. 1777. P.i.
Petr. Tabarrani on the same subject, Atti di
Siena. Vol. vi.
coronary veins, it conveys that fluid into the anterior
sinus and auricle; and thence into the corresponding
ventricle, which, as well as the auricle, communicates
[65]
with
both orders of its own vessels by the openings of
Thebesius.
Thebesius.
Respecting these openings consult among others
J. Abernethy, Philos.
Trans. 1798. p. 103.
Trans. 1798. p. 103.
100. From this anterior, or, in reference to the heart
of some animals, right, ventricle, the blood is impelled
through the pulmonary artery into the lungs: returning
from which, it enters the four pulmonary veins and pro-
ceeds into their common sinus and the left, or, as it is
now more properly termed, posterior auricle.
of some animals, right, ventricle, the blood is impelled
through the pulmonary artery into the lungs: returning
from which, it enters the four pulmonary veins and pro-
ceeds into their common sinus and the left, or, as it is
now more properly termed, posterior auricle.
James Penada, Memorie della Sociata
Italiana. T. xi. p. 555.
101. It flows next into the corresponding ventricle;
and then passing into the aorta, is distributed through
the general arterial system and the coronary vessels of
the heart.
and then passing into the aorta, is distributed through
the general arterial system and the coronary vessels of
the heart.
Consult Achill.
Mieg, Specimen ii. Observationum Botanicorum,
&c.
Basil. 1776. 4to. p. 12 sq.
Basil. 1776. 4to. p. 12 sq.
102. Having proceeded from the extreme twigs of
the general arterial system into the radicles of the
veins, and from the coronary arteries into the coronary
veins, it finally is poured into the two venae cavae, and
then again pursues the same circular course.
the general arterial system into the radicles of the
veins, and from the coronary arteries into the coronary
veins, it finally is poured into the two venae cavae, and
then again pursues the same circular course.
103. The regularity of this circular and successive
motion through the cavities of the heart is secured,
and any retrograde motion prevented, by the valves
which are placed at the principal openings, viz. at the
openings of the auricles into the ventricles, and of the
ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta.
motion through the cavities of the heart is secured,
and any retrograde motion prevented, by the valves
which are placed at the principal openings, viz. at the
openings of the auricles into the ventricles, and of the
ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta.
104. Thus the ring, or venous tendon, which forms the
limit of the anterior auricle and ventricle, descending
into the latter cavity, becomes these tendinous valves.
These were formerly said to have three apices, and
limit of the anterior auricle and ventricle, descending
into the latter cavity, becomes these tendinous valves.
Eustachius, Tab. viii.
fig. 6.–tab. xvi. fig. 3. Santorini. Tab. Posth. ix.
fig. 1.
fig. 1.
These were formerly said to have three apices, and
[66]
were therefore called
triglochine or tricuspidal: they
adhere to the fleshy pillars, or, in common language,
the papillary muscles.
adhere to the fleshy pillars, or, in common language,
the papillary muscles.
105. In a similar manner, the limits of the posterior
auricle and ventricle are defined by a ring of the same
kind, constituting two valves, which, from their form,
have obtained the appellation of mitral.
auricle and ventricle are defined by a ring of the same
kind, constituting two valves, which, from their form,
have obtained the appellation of mitral.
Eustachius, Tab. xvi.
fig. 6.
106. At the opening of the pulmonary artery
aorta
fleshy and elegant, but of less circumference than the
mitral.
Eustachius,
Tab. xvi. fig. 4.
aorta
Eustachius, Tab. xvi. fig. 5. Morgagni, Advers.
Anat. i. Tab. iv. fig. 3.
Santorini, l.c.
Santorini, l.c.
Consult Hunter, who treats very minutely of the
mechanism of these
valves in his work On the Blood, &c.p. 159.
valves in his work On the Blood, &c.p. 159.
fleshy and elegant, but of less circumference than the
mitral.
107. It is obvious how these valves must prevent
the retrocession of the blood into the cavae. They
readily permit the blood to pass on, but are expanded,
like a sail, against it, by any attempt at retrograde
movement.
the retrocession of the blood into the cavae. They
readily permit the blood to pass on, but are expanded,
like a sail, against it, by any attempt at retrograde
movement.
108. The texture of the heart is peculiar: fleshy, in-
deed, but very dense and compact, far different from
common muscularity.
fibres, more or less oblique, here and there singularly
branching out, curiously contorted and vorticose in
their direction, lying upon each other in strata, closely
interwoven between the cavities, and bound by four
cartilaginous bands to the basis of the ventricles, which
are thus supported and distinguished in their texture
from the fibres of the auricles.
deed, but very dense and compact, far different from
common muscularity.
Leop. M.A.
Caldani, Memorie lette nell’ Acad. di Padova.
1814. p. 67.
fibres, more or less oblique, here and there singularly
branching out, curiously contorted and vorticose in
their direction, lying upon each other in strata, closely
interwoven between the cavities, and bound by four
cartilaginous bands to the basis of the ventricles, which
are thus supported and distinguished in their texture
from the fibres of the auricles.
Casp. F. Wolff, Act. Acad.
Scientiar. Petropol. for the year 1780 sq.
[67]
109. These fleshy fibres are supplied with very soft
nerves
which arise from the coronary arteries, and are so in-
finitely ramified,
structure of the heart as composed of them.
nerves
Scarpa, Tabulae Neurologicae
ad illust. Hist. Anat. cardiac. nervor.
Tab. iii. iv. v. vi.
Tab. iii. iv. v. vi.
which arise from the coronary arteries, and are so in-
finitely ramified,
Ruysch, Thesaur. Anat. iv. Tab. iii. fig. 1,
2.
structure of the heart as composed of them.
Brandis has proposed an
ingenious hypothesis to explain the use of so
great an apparatus of coronary vessels. Versuch über die Lebenskraft. p. 84.
great an apparatus of coronary vessels. Versuch über die Lebenskraft. p. 84.
110. The heart is loosely contained in the pericar-
dium.
mediastinum, very firm, of the same figure as the heart,
and moistened by an exhalation from the arteries of that
organ. Its importance is evinced by its existence being,
in red blooded animals, as general as that of the heart;
and by our having only two instances on record of its
absence in the human subject.
dium.
Haller, Elementa Physiol. T. i. tab. i.
Nicholls, Philos. Trans. Vol. lii. P.i. p.
272.
mediastinum, very firm, of the same figure as the heart,
and moistened by an exhalation from the arteries of that
organ. Its importance is evinced by its existence being,
in red blooded animals, as general as that of the heart;
and by our having only two instances on record of its
absence in the human subject.
Littre, Hist. de l’Academie des Sc. de Paris. 1782. p.
37. Baillie,
Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of Medical and Chirurgical
Knowledge. T. i. p. 91.
Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of Medical and Chirurgical
Knowledge. T. i. p. 91.
111. By this structure, the heart is adapted for per-
petual and equable motions, which are an alternate
systole and disastole, or contraction and relaxation of
the auricles and ventricles in succession.
petual and equable motions, which are an alternate
systole and disastole, or contraction and relaxation of
the auricles and ventricles in succession.
112. Thus, as often as the auricles contract to impel
the blood of the venae cavae and pulmonary veins into
the ventricles, these are at the same moment relaxed,
to receive the blood: immediately afterwards, when
the distended ventricles are contracting to impel the
blood into the two great arteries, the auricles relax
and receive the fresh venous supply.
the blood of the venae cavae and pulmonary veins into
the ventricles, these are at the same moment relaxed,
to receive the blood: immediately afterwards, when
the distended ventricles are contracting to impel the
blood into the two great arteries, the auricles relax
and receive the fresh venous supply.
[68]
113. The systole of the ventricles, upon which is
said to be spent one third of the time of the whole ac-
tion of the heart, is performed in such a way, that their
external portion is drawn towards their septum, and
the apex of the heart towards the base.
sight seems disproved by the circumstance of the apex
striking against the left nipple and consequently ap-
pearing elongated, – a circumstance, however, to be
attributed to the double impetus of the blood flowing
into the auricles and expelled from the ventricles, by
which the heart must be driven against that part of the
ribs. (A)
said to be spent one third of the time of the whole ac-
tion of the heart, is performed in such a way, that their
external portion is drawn towards their septum, and
the apex of the heart towards the base.
Consult Ant. Portal, Mémoires sur la Nature
& le Traitement de plusieurs
Maladies. T. ii. 1800. p. 281.
Maladies. T. ii. 1800. p. 281.
sight seems disproved by the circumstance of the apex
striking against the left nipple and consequently ap-
pearing elongated, – a circumstance, however, to be
attributed to the double impetus of the blood flowing
into the auricles and expelled from the ventricles, by
which the heart must be driven against that part of the
ribs. (A)
114. The impulse imparted by the heart to the blood,
is communicated to the arteries, so that every systole
of the heart is very clearly manifested in those arteries
which can be explored by the fingers and exceed 1/6 of
an inch in diameter, and in those also whose pulsation
can be otherwise discovered, as in the eye and ear.
The effect upon the arteries is called their disastole,
and is correspondent and synchronous with the systole
of the heart.
is communicated to the arteries, so that every systole
of the heart is very clearly manifested in those arteries
which can be explored by the fingers and exceed 1/6 of
an inch in diameter, and in those also whose pulsation
can be otherwise discovered, as in the eye and ear.
The effect upon the arteries is called their disastole,
and is correspondent and synchronous with the systole
of the heart.
115. The quickness of the heart’s pulsations during
health varies indefinitely; chiefly from age, but also
from other conditions which at all ages form the pecu-
liar health of an individual; so that we can lay down
no rule on this point. I may, however, be permitted
to mention the varieties which I have found in our
climate
health varies indefinitely; chiefly from age, but also
from other conditions which at all ages form the pecu-
liar health of an individual; so that we can lay down
no rule on this point. I may, however, be permitted
to mention the varieties which I have found in our
climate
My observations differ but little from those made by Heberden in
England,
Med. Trans. vol. ii. p. 21 sq.
Med. Trans. vol. ii. p. 21 sq.
[69]
infant, in which, while
placidly sleeping, it is about
140 in a minute.
140 in a minute.
| Towards the end of the | first year, about | 124 |
| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | second | 110 |
| . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | third and fourth | 96 |
| When the first teeth begin | to drop out | 86 |
| At puberty | 80 | |
| At manhood | 75 | |
| About sixty | 60 |
In those more advanced, I have scarcely twice found
it alike.
it alike.
116. The pulse is, caeteris paribus, more frequent
in women than men, and in short than tall persons.
A more constant fact, however, is its greater slowness
in cold climates.
and coition, during continued watchfulness, exercise,
or mental excitement, is universally known. (B)
in women than men, and in short than tall persons.
A more constant fact, however, is its greater slowness
in cold climates.
J.H. Schonheyder, De Resolutione et Impotentia
motus Muscularis.
Hafn. 1768. p. 15. With which work compare the observations of F. Gabr.
Sulzer, Naturgesch. des Hamsters. p. 169.
Hafn. 1768. p. 15. With which work compare the observations of F. Gabr.
Sulzer, Naturgesch. des Hamsters. p. 169.
and coition, during continued watchfulness, exercise,
or mental excitement, is universally known. (B)
117. The heart rather than the arteries is to be re-
garded as the source of these varieties.
garded as the source of these varieties.
Its action continues in this manner till death, and
then all its parts do not, at once, cease to act; but the
right portion, for a short period, survives the left.
then all its parts do not, at once, cease to act; but the
right portion, for a short period, survives the left.
Stenonis, Act. Haffniens. T. ii. p. 142.
Sometimes, though rarely, it happens that the right portion of the
heart,
oppressed with too much blood, becomes, contrary to what usually takes place,
paralysed before the left. This I have more than once observed on opening
living mammalia, particularly rabbits.
oppressed with too much blood, becomes, contrary to what usually takes place,
paralysed before the left. This I have more than once observed on opening
living mammalia, particularly rabbits.
For since the collapsed state of the lungs impedes
the course of the blood from the right side, and the
veins must be turgid with the blood just driven into
the course of the blood from the right side, and the
veins must be turgid with the blood just driven into
[70]
them from
the arteries, it cannot but happen that this
blood, driving against the right auricle, must excite it
to resistance for some time after the death of the left
portion of the heart.
blood, driving against the right auricle, must excite it
to resistance for some time after the death of the left
portion of the heart.
118. This congestion on the right side of the heart
affords an explanation of the small quantity of blood
found in the large branches of the aorta. Weiss,
after him Sabatier,
comparatively larger size
ventricle in the adult dead subject especially.
affords an explanation of the small quantity of blood
found in the large branches of the aorta. Weiss,
J.N. Weiss, De Dextro Cordis Ventriculo post mortem
ampliori. Altorf.
1767. 4to.
1767. 4to.
after him Sabatier,
Ant. Chaum. Sabatier, In vivis animalibus Ventriculorum Cordis
eadem
capacitas. Paris. 1772. 4to.
capacitas. Paris. 1772. 4to.
comparatively larger size
Sam. Aurivilius, De Vasorum Pulmonal. &
Cavitat. Cordis inaequali
amplitudine. Gotting. 1750. 4to.
amplitudine. Gotting. 1750. 4to.
ventricle in the adult dead subject especially.
119. The motion of the blood is performed by these
two orders of vessels in conjunction with the heart. Its
celerity in health cannot be determined: for it varies
not only in different persons, but in different parts of
the same person. Generally, the blood moves more
slowly in the veins than in the arteries, and in the small
vessels than in the large trunks. But these differences
have been overrated by physiologists.
two orders of vessels in conjunction with the heart. Its
celerity in health cannot be determined: for it varies
not only in different persons, but in different parts of
the same person. Generally, the blood moves more
slowly in the veins than in the arteries, and in the small
vessels than in the large trunks. But these differences
have been overrated by physiologists.
The mean velocity of the blood flowing into the
aorta, is usually estimated at eight inches for each pul-
sation, or at fifty feet in a minute.
aorta, is usually estimated at eight inches for each pul-
sation, or at fifty feet in a minute.
120. Some have affirmed that the globules of the
cruor move more in the axis of the vessels, and with
greater rapidity, than the other constituents of the
blood. I know not whether this rests upon any
satisfactory experiment, or upon an improper appli-
cation of the laws of hydraulics; improper, because
cruor move more in the axis of the vessels, and with
greater rapidity, than the other constituents of the
blood. I know not whether this rests upon any
satisfactory experiment, or upon an improper appli-
cation of the laws of hydraulics; improper, because
[71]
it is absurd to refer the motion of the blood
through
living canals, to the mere mechanical laws of water
moving in an hydraulic machine. I have never ob-
served this peculiarity of the globules. My persuasion
is still more certain that the globules pass on with the
other constituents of the blood, and are not rotated
around their own axis, – that besides the progressive,
there is no intestine, motion in the blood; although in-
deed there can be no doubt that the elements of this
fluid are occasionally divided, where it is variously
impelled according to the different direction, division,
and anastomoses of the vessels.
living canals, to the mere mechanical laws of water
moving in an hydraulic machine. I have never ob-
served this peculiarity of the globules. My persuasion
is still more certain that the globules pass on with the
other constituents of the blood, and are not rotated
around their own axis, – that besides the progressive,
there is no intestine, motion in the blood; although in-
deed there can be no doubt that the elements of this
fluid are occasionally divided, where it is variously
impelled according to the different direction, division,
and anastomoses of the vessels.
121. The powers of the sanguiferous system are now
to be examined: first, those of the heart, by far the
greatest of all; afterwards, those which are only sub-
sidiary, though indeed highly useful.
to be examined: first, those of the heart, by far the
greatest of all; afterwards, those which are only sub-
sidiary, though indeed highly useful.
122. That the powers of the heart cannot be accu-
rately calculated is clear, upon reflecting that neither
the volume of the blood projected at each pulsation,
nor the celerity nor distance of its projection, much
less the obstacles to the powers of the heart, can be
accurately determined.
rately calculated is clear, upon reflecting that neither
the volume of the blood projected at each pulsation,
nor the celerity nor distance of its projection, much
less the obstacles to the powers of the heart, can be
accurately determined.
123. A rough calculation may be made by taking
every probable conjecture together: v.c. if the mean
bulk of the blood is considered as 10 pounds, or 120
ounces; the pulsations 75 in a minute, or 4500 in an
hour; and the quantity of blood expelled from the left
ventricle at each contraction, as two ounces; it fol-
lows that all the blood must pass through the heart
75 times every hour. The impetus of the blood pass-
ing from the heart, may be conceived by the vio-
lence and altitude of the stream projected from a
large wounded artery situated near it. I have seen
every probable conjecture together: v.c. if the mean
bulk of the blood is considered as 10 pounds, or 120
ounces; the pulsations 75 in a minute, or 4500 in an
hour; and the quantity of blood expelled from the left
ventricle at each contraction, as two ounces; it fol-
lows that all the blood must pass through the heart
75 times every hour. The impetus of the blood pass-
ing from the heart, may be conceived by the vio-
lence and altitude of the stream projected from a
large wounded artery situated near it. I have seen
[72]
the blood driven to the distance
of at least live feet
from the carotid of an adult and robust man.
from the carotid of an adult and robust man.
The experiments of Hales, in which the blood was
received into very long
glass tubes fixed to the arteries of living animals, and the length of its pro-
jection measured, are indeed beautiful, like every thing done by this philo-
sopher, who was by nature calculated for such enquiries. But if the force of
the heart is to be estimated in this way, we must take into account the
pressure of the column of blood contained in the tube and gravitating upon the
left ventricle. The result of Hales’s calculations was, that the blood being
projected from the human carotid seven feet and a half, and the surface of the
left ventricle being fifteen square inches, a column of blood, weighing 51.5 lbs.
was incumbent upon the ventricle and overcome by its systole. – Statical
Essays. vol. ii. p. 40. London. 1733. 8vo.
glass tubes fixed to the arteries of living animals, and the length of its pro-
jection measured, are indeed beautiful, like every thing done by this philo-
sopher, who was by nature calculated for such enquiries. But if the force of
the heart is to be estimated in this way, we must take into account the
pressure of the column of blood contained in the tube and gravitating upon the
left ventricle. The result of Hales’s calculations was, that the blood being
projected from the human carotid seven feet and a half, and the surface of the
left ventricle being fifteen square inches, a column of blood, weighing 51.5 lbs.
was incumbent upon the ventricle and overcome by its systole. – Statical
Essays. vol. ii. p. 40. London. 1733. 8vo.
124. This wonderful, and, while life remains, con-
stant, strength of the heart, is universally allowed to
depend on its irritability, (41) in which it very far sur-
passes, especially as to duration,
muscular part.
stant, strength of the heart, is universally allowed to
depend on its irritability, (41) in which it very far sur-
passes, especially as to duration,
Thus, to say nothing of the phenomena so frequently observed in the
cold-
blooded amphibia and fishes, I lately found the heart of the chick beat for
twelve hours, in an egg, on the fourth day of incubation.
blooded amphibia and fishes, I lately found the heart of the chick beat for
twelve hours, in an egg, on the fourth day of incubation.
muscular part.
Consult Fontana, who
treats of this prerogative of the heart minutely in
his Ricerche sopra la Fisica animale, and limits it too much. Haller answered
him in the Literary Index of Gottingen.
his Ricerche sopra la Fisica animale, and limits it too much. Haller answered
him in the Literary Index of Gottingen.
That the parietes of the cavities are excited to con-
traction by the stimulus of the blood, is proved by the
experiment of Haller, who lengthened at pleasure the
motion of either side of the heart, by affording it
the stimulus of the blood for a longer period than the
other.
traction by the stimulus of the blood, is proved by the
experiment of Haller, who lengthened at pleasure the
motion of either side of the heart, by affording it
the stimulus of the blood for a longer period than the
other.
Haller on the motion of the heart from stimulus,
Comment. Soc. Scient.
Gottingens. Tom. i.
Gottingens. Tom. i.
G.E. Remus, Experimenta circa circulat. sanguin.
instituta. Gotting.
1752. p. 14. 4to.
1752. p. 14. 4to.
[73]
125. Since a supply of nerves and blood is requisite
to the action of the voluntary muscles, it has been
enquired whether these are requisite to the heart also.
to the action of the voluntary muscles, it has been
enquired whether these are requisite to the heart also.
On this dispute consult
R. Forsten, Quaestion. select. Physiol.
Lugd.
Bat. 1774. 4to.
Bat. 1774. 4to.
J.B.J. Behrend, Dissert. qua demonstratur cor nervis
carere. Mogunt.
1792. 4to.; and on the other side, J. Munnik, Observationes variae.
Groning. 1805. 4to. Lucae, l.c. p. 37. tab. ii.
1792. 4to.; and on the other side, J. Munnik, Observationes variae.
Groning. 1805. 4to. Lucae, l.c. p. 37. tab. ii.
The great influence of the nerves over the heart,
is
demonstrated by the size of the cardiac nerves, and
by the great sympathy between the heart and most func-
tions, however different. A convincing proof of this,
is the momentary sympathy of the heart during the
most perfect health
primae viae in various disorders. But the great import-
ance of the blood to the irritability of the heart, is evi-
dent from the great abundance of vessels in its mus-
cular substance.
demonstrated by the size of the cardiac nerves, and
by the great sympathy between the heart and most func-
tions, however different. A convincing proof of this,
is the momentary sympathy of the heart during the
most perfect health
And how much
more so when the heart is diseased, is shewn in Caleb Hil-
lier Parry’s Inquiry into the Symptoms and Causes of the Syncope Anginosa,
commonly called Angina Pectoris. p. 114. Bath. 1799. 8vo.
lier Parry’s Inquiry into the Symptoms and Causes of the Syncope Anginosa,
commonly called Angina Pectoris. p. 114. Bath. 1799. 8vo.
primae viae in various disorders. But the great import-
ance of the blood to the irritability of the heart, is evi-
dent from the great abundance of vessels in its mus-
cular substance.
Nevertheless it is very probable, that the importance
of the nerves in this respect is greater in the voluntary
muscles, and of the blood in the heart.
of the nerves in this respect is greater in the voluntary
muscles, and of the blood in the heart.
126. Besides these powers of the heart, there is ano-
ther, which is mechanical, dependent on structure, and
greatly contributing, in all probability, to sustain the
circulation. For when the blood is expelled from the
contracted cavities, a vacuum takes place, into which,
according to the common laws of derivation, the neigh-
bouring blood must rush, being prevented, by means
of the valves, from regurgitating.
ther, which is mechanical, dependent on structure, and
greatly contributing, in all probability, to sustain the
circulation. For when the blood is expelled from the
contracted cavities, a vacuum takes place, into which,
according to the common laws of derivation, the neigh-
bouring blood must rush, being prevented, by means
of the valves, from regurgitating.
Andr.
Wilson, Inquiry into the moving powers employed in
the Circulation
of the Blood. Lond. 1774. 8vo. p. 35 sq.
of the Blood. Lond. 1774. 8vo. p. 35 sq.
[74]
127. We must now enquire what powers are exerted
by other organs in assisting the circulation. The exist-
ence of some secondary powers and their ability to as-
sist, or even in some cases to compensate for, the
action of the heart, are proved by several arguments:
v.c. the blood moves in some parts to which the in-
fluence of the heart cannot reach, – in the vena portae
and placenta; not to mention instances of the absence
of the heart.
by other organs in assisting the circulation. The exist-
ence of some secondary powers and their ability to as-
sist, or even in some cases to compensate for, the
action of the heart, are proved by several arguments:
v.c. the blood moves in some parts to which the in-
fluence of the heart cannot reach, – in the vena portae
and placenta; not to mention instances of the absence
of the heart.
See v.c.C.W. Curtius. De monstro humano cum infante gemello.
Lugd.
Bat. 1762. 4to. p. 39. W. Cooper, Philos. Transact. vol. lxv. p. 316.
Haller, Opera Minora. T. iii. p. 33. C. Chr. Klein, Descriptio monstrorum
quorundam. Stuttg. 1793. 4to.
Bat. 1762. 4to. p. 39. W. Cooper, Philos. Transact. vol. lxv. p. 316.
Haller, Opera Minora. T. iii. p. 33. C. Chr. Klein, Descriptio monstrorum
quorundam. Stuttg. 1793. 4to.
128. The principal of these powers is the function of
the arteries, not easy indeed to be clearly understood
and demonstrated. 1. They have a muscular coat. (E)
2. That they are irritable, has been proved by repeated
experiments.
from the sympathetic, and surrounding the larger arte-
rial branches, particularly in the lower part of the
abdomen,
assisting the motion of the blood.
the arteries, not easy indeed to be clearly understood
and demonstrated. 1. They have a muscular coat. (E)
2. That they are irritable, has been proved by repeated
experiments.
Walter
Verschuir, De arteriar. et venar. vi irritabili;
ejusque in vasis
excessu; et inde oriunda sanguinis directione abnormi. Groning. 1766. 4to.
excessu; et inde oriunda sanguinis directione abnormi. Groning. 1766. 4to.
Rich. Dennison, Diss. arterias omnes et venarum partem
irritabilitate prae-
ditas esse. Edinb. 1775. 8vo.
ditas esse. Edinb. 1775. 8vo.
Chr. Kramp, De vi vitali arteriarum. Argent.
1785. 8vo.
from the sympathetic, and surrounding the larger arte-
rial branches, particularly in the lower part of the
abdomen,
Observe for instance, in Walter’s Tabulae
nervor. thorac. et abdominis, the
right hepatic, Tab. ii. O. Tab. iii. l. – the splenic, tab. ii. P. Tab. iii. m. tab.
iv. o. – the superior mesenteric, Tab. ii. Q. Tab. iii. s. – the inferior mesenteric,
Tab. ii. T. – and many others. Compare Soemmerring, De c.h. fabrica.
T. iv. p. 362.
right hepatic, Tab. ii. O. Tab. iii. l. – the splenic, tab. ii. P. Tab. iii. m. tab.
iv. o. – the superior mesenteric, Tab. ii. Q. Tab. iii. s. – the inferior mesenteric,
Tab. ii. T. – and many others. Compare Soemmerring, De c.h. fabrica.
T. iv. p. 362.
assisting the motion of the blood.
Haller, De Nervor. in arterias imperio.
Gotting. 1744. 4to. Lucae, l.c.
129. The arteries pulsate, and indeed violently, so
[75]
that if, v.c. we place one leg
over the other knee, we
find not only that it, but even a much greater weight,
may be raised by the pulsation of the popliteal. Hence
an alternate systole and diastole, corresponding with
those of the heart, have long been assigned to them.
But this, although commonly believed on the evidence
of sense, is open to much question:
especially, whether this pulsation is referrible to the
power of the artery, or only to the impulse given by
the heart to the blood propelled into the aorta.
find not only that it, but even a much greater weight,
may be raised by the pulsation of the popliteal. Hence
an alternate systole and diastole, corresponding with
those of the heart, have long been assigned to them.
But this, although commonly believed on the evidence
of sense, is open to much question:
T. Kirkland, Inquiry into the present state of
Medical Surgery. London.
1783. 8vo. vol. i. p. 306 sq.
1783. 8vo. vol. i. p. 306 sq.
especially, whether this pulsation is referrible to the
power of the artery, or only to the impulse given by
the heart to the blood propelled into the aorta.
130. And indeed, after all, it appears that the dias-
tole of an artery is owing to the blood, – to a lateral
distention given by the impetus of the blood, so that
the coats are expanded; and the vessel, by its elasti-
city, the next moment reacquires its natural thickness.
To the same impulse may be ascribed the lateral mo-
tion of the axis, observable in the larger arteries, if
serpentine and lying in loose cellular substance. (F)
tole of an artery is owing to the blood, – to a lateral
distention given by the impetus of the blood, so that
the coats are expanded; and the vessel, by its elasti-
city, the next moment reacquires its natural thickness.
To the same impulse may be ascribed the lateral mo-
tion of the axis, observable in the larger arteries, if
serpentine and lying in loose cellular substance. (F)
The genuine systole, produced by a contraction
of
their substance, scarcely occurs, probably, while the
heart acts with sufficient vigor; but when they are un-
usually stimulated, or if the action of the heart fails or
is impeded by severe disease, then indeed the arteries
may supply its place and propel the blood by their own
vital energy,
their substance, scarcely occurs, probably, while the
heart acts with sufficient vigor; but when they are un-
usually stimulated, or if the action of the heart fails or
is impeded by severe disease, then indeed the arteries
may supply its place and propel the blood by their own
vital energy,
131. Since Whytt
Physiological Essays, containing an inquiry into the causes which
promote
the circulation of the fluids in the very small vessels of animals, &c. &c.
Second Edition. Edinb. 1761. 12mo.
the circulation of the fluids in the very small vessels of animals, &c. &c.
Second Edition. Edinb. 1761. 12mo.
H.v.d. Bosch, Uber das Muskelvermögen der
Haargefässgen. Munster.
1786. 8vo.
1786. 8vo.
[76]
gists have been convinced
that the influence of the
heart could not reach the extreme arteries and the ori-
gins of the veins, they have ascribed the progression
of the blood in those vessels to a kind of oscillation,
and have happily employed this to demonstrate the
nature of inflammation. Many kinds of phenomena,
both physiological, as those regarding animal heat,
and pathological, as those observed in spasms and
particularly in fevers, favour the supposition of this
oscillatory faculty, though it is not demonstrable to
the eye. (G)
heart could not reach the extreme arteries and the ori-
gins of the veins, they have ascribed the progression
of the blood in those vessels to a kind of oscillation,
and have happily employed this to demonstrate the
nature of inflammation. Many kinds of phenomena,
both physiological, as those regarding animal heat,
and pathological, as those observed in spasms and
particularly in fevers, favour the supposition of this
oscillatory faculty, though it is not demonstrable to
the eye. (G)
132. It remains now to enquire into the aid given to
the returning blood by the veins, not alluding at all to
their radicles. We should conclude at first sight that
they have less active power
guiferous system, and that the return of their purple
blood to the heart is chiefly ascribable to the impetus
a tergo of the arterial blood, and to their valvular
structure which prevents any reflux. The efficacy
of the valves in this point of view, is shewn by the
distentions and infarctions of the veins in the lower
part of the abdomen, which are found destitute of
valves.
the returning blood by the veins, not alluding at all to
their radicles. We should conclude at first sight that
they have less active power
What is commonly, but improperly, called the venous pulsation, observable
on opening living animals and in some morbid affections, and also under a
violent effort, does not correspond with the action of the heart, but with res-
piration; since if an expiration is unusually deep and lengthened, and the
reflux of the blood to the lungs thus impeded, the jugular vein swells as far as
the brain, the subclavian as far as the basilic, and the inferior cava as far as
the crural.
on opening living animals and in some morbid affections, and also under a
violent effort, does not correspond with the action of the heart, but with res-
piration; since if an expiration is unusually deep and lengthened, and the
reflux of the blood to the lungs thus impeded, the jugular vein swells as far as
the brain, the subclavian as far as the basilic, and the inferior cava as far as
the crural.
guiferous system, and that the return of their purple
blood to the heart is chiefly ascribable to the impetus
a tergo of the arterial blood, and to their valvular
structure which prevents any reflux. The efficacy
of the valves in this point of view, is shewn by the
distentions and infarctions of the veins in the lower
part of the abdomen, which are found destitute of
valves.
G.E. Stahl, De vena portae porta malorum. Halae. 1698.
4to.
The existence of vital powers in the venous trunks
is probable,
is probable,
Lister, De humoribus, p.
25.
[77]
centa (127), and from
experiments instituted on living
animals. We formerly mentioned the muscular ap-
pearance in the extreme veins near the heart (95). (H)
animals. We formerly mentioned the muscular ap-
pearance in the extreme veins near the heart (95). (H)
133. These are the chief powers which move the
blood and depend upon the structure and vitality of the
sanguiferous system: we say nothing of the effect of
gravity, attraction, and other powers, common to all
matter. The more remote assistance derived after
birth from particular functions, v.c. respiration and
muscular motion, will appear in our account of those
functions.
blood and depend upon the structure and vitality of the
sanguiferous system: we say nothing of the effect of
gravity, attraction, and other powers, common to all
matter. The more remote assistance derived after
birth from particular functions, v.c. respiration and
muscular motion, will appear in our account of those
functions.
NOTES.
(A) Dr. W. Hunter first accounted for this in 1746.
“The systole and diastole of the heart, simply, could not pro-
duce such an effect; nor could it have been produced, if it had
thrown the blood into a straight tube, in the direction of the axis
of the left ventricle, as is the case with fish, and some other
classes of animals: but by throwing the blood into a curved tube,
viz. the aorta, that artery, at its curve, endeavours to throw itself
into a straight line, to increase its capacity; but the aorta being
the fixed point against the back, and the heart in some degree
loose and pendulous, the influence of its own action is thrown
upon itself, and it is tilted forwards against the inside of the
chest.”
Treatise on the Blood, &c. by John
Hunter. p. 146. Note.
Dr. Barclay has the following passage on this point.
“When the blood is forced into the arteries, their curvatures,
near where they issue from the ventricles, are from their disten-
tion lengthened and extended towards straight lines; and, caus-
ing the heart to participate in their motions, compel it to describe
[78]
the segment of a circle, when the apex moving atlantad and
sinistrad, is made to strike against the left side. The same kind
of motion having also been observed by the celebrated Haller, in
distending the left or systemic auricle, it must follow, that the
stroke which is given to the side, may be the effect of two distinct-
causes, either acting separately, or in combination; but acting
on a heart obliquely situated, as ours is, in the cavity of the
thorax, where the aspect of the base is atlantad and dextrad, and
that of the apex sinistrad and sacrad. In combination, as the
first of the two, by removing the pressure, will facilitate the in-
flux of the venous blood into the left or systemic auricle, which
is situated dorsad; so the second, by the influx of blood into the
auricle, will contribute in its turn to facilitate the circular motion
of the heart, proceeding from the arteries.”
The Muscular Motions of the Human Body. p.
567.
(B) It is commonly believed, that the pulse of every person is
quicker in the evening than in the morning, and some have sup-
posed an increase of quickness also at noon. Upon these sup-
positions Cullen builds his explanation of the noon and evening
paroxysms of hectic fever,
tions of natural exacerbations. The existence of the noon pa-
roxysms is doubtful, and the evening one cannot be so explained,
if the writer of a paper in the Edinbugh Journal is correct.
His observations show the pulse to be slower in the evening,
and quicker in the morning.
quicker in the evening than in the morning, and some have sup-
posed an increase of quickness also at noon. Upon these sup-
positions Cullen builds his explanation of the noon and evening
paroxysms of hectic fever,
Practice of Physic.
tions of natural exacerbations. The existence of the noon pa-
roxysms is doubtful, and the evening one cannot be so explained,
if the writer of a paper in the Edinbugh Journal is correct.
Robert Knox,
M.D. Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.
1815.
His observations show the pulse to be slower in the evening,
and quicker in the morning.
(C) The heart, however, of frogs, for instance, contracts and
relaxes alternately, for a length of time, when out of the body
and destitute of blood.
relaxes alternately, for a length of time, when out of the body
and destitute of blood.
(D) The influence of this vacuum first pointed out by
Dr. Andrew Wilson, and conceded by John Hunter, has been
lately very ably displayed by Dr. Carson of Liverpool.
Dr. Andrew Wilson, and conceded by John Hunter, has been
lately very ably displayed by Dr. Carson of Liverpool.
An
Inquiry into the Causes of the Motion of the Blood.
1815.
The quantity of the blood, the length of its course, and the
[79]
various obstacles opposed to
its progress, render it unlikely that
the mere propulsive power of the heart is sufficient to maintain the
circulation perpetually. But great assistance must be given by the
vacuum which takes place in all the cavities of the organ, when
the contraction of the muscular fibres is over. The blood is thus
drawn into each relaxed cavity, and the heart performs the double
office of a forcing and a suction pump. The rapid but quiet motion
of the blood in the veins is thus accounted for and would other-
wise be inexplicable. The situation of the valves of the heart is
also accounted for. There are valves between the auricles and
ventricles, and at the mouths of the two great arteries, because
behind each of these four openings is a cavity of the heart, alter-
nately dilating and affording a vacuum, into which, without
valves, the blood would be drawn retrograde. At the venous
openings of the auricles no valves exist, because they do not
open from a cavity of the heart, – from a part ever experiencing
a vacuum, and therefore the blood cannot, when the auricles
contract, move retrograde, but will necessarily pass forwards into
the ventricles, which at that moment are offering a vacuum.
The inferior elasticity and irritability of the veins are also ex-
plained. If veins were capable of contracting equally with arteries,
on the diminution of their contents, the suction influence of the
heart would constantly reduce their cavities to a smaller capacity
than is requisite for their functions. The collapse of the veins
by pressure, during the suction of the heart, is prevented by the
fresh supply of blood afforded by the vis a tergo, which does exist,
although it cannot be considered as of itself adequate to convey
the blood back to the right auricle. The reason appears why a
tied vein is emptied in the part nearest the heart; – its blood is
drawn forwards by suction. We see why a punctured vein does
not bleed, if there are other veins to convey the blood discharged
from the arteries. The puncture necessarily removes the suction
influence of the heart, and the great cause of the progress of the
blood in the vein is taken away, while it exists in full force in
the other veins of the limb. Were it not for this circumstance,
the mere propulsive power of the heart is sufficient to maintain the
circulation perpetually. But great assistance must be given by the
vacuum which takes place in all the cavities of the organ, when
the contraction of the muscular fibres is over. The blood is thus
drawn into each relaxed cavity, and the heart performs the double
office of a forcing and a suction pump. The rapid but quiet motion
of the blood in the veins is thus accounted for and would other-
wise be inexplicable. The situation of the valves of the heart is
also accounted for. There are valves between the auricles and
ventricles, and at the mouths of the two great arteries, because
behind each of these four openings is a cavity of the heart, alter-
nately dilating and affording a vacuum, into which, without
valves, the blood would be drawn retrograde. At the venous
openings of the auricles no valves exist, because they do not
open from a cavity of the heart, – from a part ever experiencing
a vacuum, and therefore the blood cannot, when the auricles
contract, move retrograde, but will necessarily pass forwards into
the ventricles, which at that moment are offering a vacuum.
The inferior elasticity and irritability of the veins are also ex-
plained. If veins were capable of contracting equally with arteries,
on the diminution of their contents, the suction influence of the
heart would constantly reduce their cavities to a smaller capacity
than is requisite for their functions. The collapse of the veins
by pressure, during the suction of the heart, is prevented by the
fresh supply of blood afforded by the vis a tergo, which does exist,
although it cannot be considered as of itself adequate to convey
the blood back to the right auricle. The reason appears why a
tied vein is emptied in the part nearest the heart; – its blood is
drawn forwards by suction. We see why a punctured vein does
not bleed, if there are other veins to convey the blood discharged
from the arteries. The puncture necessarily removes the suction
influence of the heart, and the great cause of the progress of the
blood in the vein is taken away, while it exists in full force in
the other veins of the limb. Were it not for this circumstance,
[80]
a punctured vein should
afford blood very readily. If the chief
vein of a limb is wounded, the blood will flow, because it re-
ceives the whole blood of the arteries, transmitted by the vis a
tergo, no other veins existing into which it can be drawn when
the vacuum occurs in the right auricle: what is a parallel circum-
stance, if all the veins of a limb are tied, they swell, whereas
the ligature of one causes no tumefaction in it. These circum-
stances are no proof that the vis a tergo is sufficient of itself to
bring back the blood, because it is certain that such a vacuum
exists, and that such must be the effects of this vacuum upon the
movement of the blood: the hemorrhage in the former instance,
and the tumefaction in the latter, show a certain force only in the
blood, which, were it even sufficient to bring the blood back to
the heart, as an experiment of M. Majendie’s almost proves it to
be,
suction was removed.
vein of a limb is wounded, the blood will flow, because it re-
ceives the whole blood of the arteries, transmitted by the vis a
tergo, no other veins existing into which it can be drawn when
the vacuum occurs in the right auricle: what is a parallel circum-
stance, if all the veins of a limb are tied, they swell, whereas
the ligature of one causes no tumefaction in it. These circum-
stances are no proof that the vis a tergo is sufficient of itself to
bring back the blood, because it is certain that such a vacuum
exists, and that such must be the effects of this vacuum upon the
movement of the blood: the hemorrhage in the former instance,
and the tumefaction in the latter, show a certain force only in the
blood, which, were it even sufficient to bring the blood back to
the heart, as an experiment of M. Majendie’s almost proves it to
be,
A ligature was passed
around the whole of a dog’s thigh excepting the
crural artery and vein. Another was fixed upon the vein. On puncturing the
vein, the blood was projected to some distance and continued to be so except
when the artery was compressed; and as long as the circulation continued, the
stream through the wound in the vein could be regulated at pleasure by com-
pressing or liberating the artery. Précis Elémentaire de Physologie. t. ii.
p. 323 sq.
crural artery and vein. Another was fixed upon the vein. On puncturing the
vein, the blood was projected to some distance and continued to be so except
when the artery was compressed; and as long as the circulation continued, the
stream through the wound in the vein could be regulated at pleasure by com-
pressing or liberating the artery. Précis Elémentaire de Physologie. t. ii.
p. 323 sq.
suction was removed.
From the structure of the heart it is clear that the mere alter-
nate relaxation of its parietes enlarges its cavities and forms a
vacuum. Experiment proves the same. Dr. Carson put the hearts
of some frogs just extracted into water, blood-warm. They
were thrown into violent action, and, upon some occasions, pro-
jected a small stream of a bloody colour through the transparent
fluid. It was thought that a stream of the same kind continued
to be projected at every succeeding contraction; but that, after
the first or second, it ceased to be observable, in consequence of
the liquid supposed to be imbibed and projected, losing its
bloody tinge and becoming transparent, or of the same colour
with the fluid in which the heart was immersed. The organ was
nate relaxation of its parietes enlarges its cavities and forms a
vacuum. Experiment proves the same. Dr. Carson put the hearts
of some frogs just extracted into water, blood-warm. They
were thrown into violent action, and, upon some occasions, pro-
jected a small stream of a bloody colour through the transparent
fluid. It was thought that a stream of the same kind continued
to be projected at every succeeding contraction; but that, after
the first or second, it ceased to be observable, in consequence of
the liquid supposed to be imbibed and projected, losing its
bloody tinge and becoming transparent, or of the same colour
with the fluid in which the heart was immersed. The organ was
[81]
felt by
the hand to expand during relaxation. He accounts,
however, for the full dilatation of the heart upon another prin-
ciple, upon which it will be impossible to enter at lengh before
the next section.
however, for the full dilatation of the heart upon another prin-
ciple, upon which it will be impossible to enter at lengh before
the next section.
(E) Most Physiologists grant to the capillaries irritability, to-
nicity, or organic contractility; but some deny that arteries pos-
sess muscular properties. Bichat’s objections are, the absence
of contraction on the application of stimuli to them, the much
greater resistance of the middle coat to a distending force than
of muscular parts, and, lastly, the difference of the changes
which it and muscles undergo both spontaneously and by the
action of other substances.
description of proofs.
tainly vital powers of contraction as fully as any parts of the
body. This appears in their various degrees of local dilatation
and contraction, under inflammation, passions of the mind, &c.:
and if the capillaries alone are allowed to possess organic contrac-
tility, it is impossible to say in which point of the arterial track
it begins.
nicity, or organic contractility; but some deny that arteries pos-
sess muscular properties. Bichat’s objections are, the absence
of contraction on the application of stimuli to them, the much
greater resistance of the middle coat to a distending force than
of muscular parts, and, lastly, the difference of the changes
which it and muscles undergo both spontaneously and by the
action of other substances.
Anatomie Generale.
T. ii.
description of proofs.
Animal Chemistry. p. 25.
tainly vital powers of contraction as fully as any parts of the
body. This appears in their various degrees of local dilatation
and contraction, under inflammation, passions of the mind, &c.:
and if the capillaries alone are allowed to possess organic contrac-
tility, it is impossible to say in which point of the arterial track
it begins.
Dr. Parry has instituted a number of experiments upon this
question. After exactly ascertaining the circumference of arte-
ries in animals, he killed them and again measured the circum-
ference; and after the lapse of many hours, – when life must have
been perfectly extinguished, he measured the circumference a
third time. Immediately after death, the circumference was
found greatly diminished, and on the third examination, it had
increased again. The first contraction arose from the absence of
the blood which distended the vessel and antagonised its efforts
to contract, and it was evidently muscular, or to speak more
correctly, organic, contraction, because, when vitality had ceased
and this kind of contraction could no longer take place, the
vessel was, on the third examination, always found enlarged.
question. After exactly ascertaining the circumference of arte-
ries in animals, he killed them and again measured the circum-
ference; and after the lapse of many hours, – when life must have
been perfectly extinguished, he measured the circumference a
third time. Immediately after death, the circumference was
found greatly diminished, and on the third examination, it had
increased again. The first contraction arose from the absence of
the blood which distended the vessel and antagonised its efforts
to contract, and it was evidently muscular, or to speak more
correctly, organic, contraction, because, when vitality had ceased
and this kind of contraction could no longer take place, the
vessel was, on the third examination, always found enlarged.
The forced state of distention in arteries was proved by the
[82]
contraction immediately
occurring on making a puncture in a
portion of vessel included between two ligatures. The capacities
of arteries are thus always accommodated to the quantity of
blood, and this circumstance gives the arterial canal such pro-
perties of a rigid tube as enable an impulse at the mouth of the
aorta to be instantly communicated throughout the canal. This
appears the great office of the contractile powers of arteries, for,
portion of vessel included between two ligatures. The capacities
of arteries are thus always accommodated to the quantity of
blood, and this circumstance gives the arterial canal such pro-
perties of a rigid tube as enable an impulse at the mouth of the
aorta to be instantly communicated throughout the canal. This
appears the great office of the contractile powers of arteries, for,
(F) They do not incessantly dilate and contract as many ima-
gine. Dr. Parry, on the most careful examination, could never
discover the least dilatation in them, during the systole of the
ventricle, – when the pulse is felt. He very properly remarks,
that the pulse is felt only when arteries are more or less com-
pressed; under which circumstance, the motion of the blood
onwards, by the impulse of a fresh portion from the left ven-
tricle, is impeded: and this effort of the fluid against the ob-
structing cause gives the sensation called the pulse.
gine. Dr. Parry, on the most careful examination, could never
discover the least dilatation in them, during the systole of the
ventricle, – when the pulse is felt. He very properly remarks,
that the pulse is felt only when arteries are more or less com-
pressed; under which circumstance, the motion of the blood
onwards, by the impulse of a fresh portion from the left ven-
tricle, is impeded: and this effort of the fluid against the ob-
structing cause gives the sensation called the pulse.
An Experimental Enquiry into the Nature, Causes,
and Varieties of the
Arterial Pulse, &c. by Caleb Hillier Parry, M.D.F.R.S. 1816. Likewise a
second work, entitled, Additional Experiments on the Arteries of warm
blooded animals, &c. by Chas. Hen. Parry, M.D.F.R.S. 1819. – the latter displays
as much talent and learning as the former of originality. Dr. Young, in a
Croonian lecture, highly worth perusal, on the Functions of the Heart and
Blood Vessels, reasons forcibly to prove that the muscular power of arteries
has very little effect in propelling the blood. Phil. Trans. 1809.
Arterial Pulse, &c. by Caleb Hillier Parry, M.D.F.R.S. 1816. Likewise a
second work, entitled, Additional Experiments on the Arteries of warm
blooded animals, &c. by Chas. Hen. Parry, M.D.F.R.S. 1819. – the latter displays
as much talent and learning as the former of originality. Dr. Young, in a
Croonian lecture, highly worth perusal, on the Functions of the Heart and
Blood Vessels, reasons forcibly to prove that the muscular power of arteries
has very little effect in propelling the blood. Phil. Trans. 1809.
Dr. Curry, the late senior physician and highly distinguished
lecturer on the practice of medicine at Guy’s Hospital, concluded,
without doubt hypothetically, from some microscopic experi-
ments which he made on inflammation in the presence once of
Mr. Charles Bell and once of Mr. Travers, that the circulation
is indispensably facilitated by a sort of electric repulsion between
the vessels and their contents, and that in inflammatory accu-
mulation, the tone of the vessels being impaired, this repulsion
is diminished and the blood passes onwards with difficulty in
consequence. My friend and colleague Dr. Scott has obliged
me with ample notes taken by himself some years ago, but any
one may see in the edition of Dr. Curry’s Syllabus, printed in 1810,
page 66, the paragraph in which inflammation is referred to the
lecturer on the practice of medicine at Guy’s Hospital, concluded,
without doubt hypothetically, from some microscopic experi-
ments which he made on inflammation in the presence once of
Mr. Charles Bell and once of Mr. Travers, that the circulation
is indispensably facilitated by a sort of electric repulsion between
the vessels and their contents, and that in inflammatory accu-
mulation, the tone of the vessels being impaired, this repulsion
is diminished and the blood passes onwards with difficulty in
consequence. My friend and colleague Dr. Scott has obliged
me with ample notes taken by himself some years ago, but any
one may see in the edition of Dr. Curry’s Syllabus, printed in 1810,
page 66, the paragraph in which inflammation is referred to the
[83]
neuro-electric state of the vessels, and which contains all the
heads
of the detail. Mr. Charles Bell has lately published this hypothesis
as his own,
the resistance to the blood’s progress is removed by a repul-
sion between it and the vessels may be explained by the suction
influence of the heart which he altogether overlooks.
of the detail. Mr. Charles Bell has lately published this hypothesis
as his own,
An Essay on the Forces which circulate the blood,
being an examination
of the difference of the motions of fluids in living and dead vessels. 1819.
of the difference of the motions of fluids in living and dead vessels. 1819.
the resistance to the blood’s progress is removed by a repul-
sion between it and the vessels may be explained by the suction
influence of the heart which he altogether overlooks.
(G) These oscillations are quite imaginary and now disallowed.
Although variations of dilatation must affect the course of the
blood through vessels, it is difficult to conceive how any regular
action of them can assist it.
Although variations of dilatation must affect the course of the
blood through vessels, it is difficult to conceive how any regular
action of them can assist it.
(H) In a young lady whom I lately attended for chronic ca-
tarrh accompanied by violent cough, from which she ultimately
recovered, all the veins of the back of the hands and fore-arms
distinctly pulsated synchronously with the arteries.
tarrh accompanied by violent cough, from which she ultimately
recovered, all the veins of the back of the hands and fore-arms
distinctly pulsated synchronously with the arteries.
The heart of mammalia and birds has no peculiarity necessary
to be mentioned here. In most amphibious animals, the arteries
spring from the right ventricle, with which the left, that sends off
no vessel, communicates: hence their circulation continues under
water. The heart of fish is extremely small, and has but one au-
ricle and ventricle, the latter propelling the blood to the gills, from
which it streams through a large artery. Neither blood vessels
nor absorbents have been discovered in insects; yet a large tube,
close at each end, pulsates in their back. With respect to the
mollusca: The cuttle fish has three detached hearts, consisting of a
ventricle only, two for the gills and one for the aorta; the rest have
a single heart, the blood of the cava passing through the gills
before it reaches the heart. The same is the case with the crus-
tacea, and their heart has no auricle. Worms have circulating
vessels distinctly contracting and dilating, but no heart. Zoo-
phytes have no heart, nor circulating system, properly so called.
In the echinus indeed there are two vessels that run along the
intestines and are thought to be an aorta and vena cava.
to be mentioned here. In most amphibious animals, the arteries
spring from the right ventricle, with which the left, that sends off
no vessel, communicates: hence their circulation continues under
water. The heart of fish is extremely small, and has but one au-
ricle and ventricle, the latter propelling the blood to the gills, from
which it streams through a large artery. Neither blood vessels
nor absorbents have been discovered in insects; yet a large tube,
close at each end, pulsates in their back. With respect to the
mollusca: The cuttle fish has three detached hearts, consisting of a
ventricle only, two for the gills and one for the aorta; the rest have
a single heart, the blood of the cava passing through the gills
before it reaches the heart. The same is the case with the crus-
tacea, and their heart has no auricle. Worms have circulating
vessels distinctly contracting and dilating, but no heart. Zoo-
phytes have no heart, nor circulating system, properly so called.
In the echinus indeed there are two vessels that run along the
intestines and are thought to be an aorta and vena cava.
[84]
SECT. VIII.
OF RESPIRATION AND ITS PRINCIPAL
USE.
134. Thelungs,
both by proximity and by relation of function, are two
viscera, large after birth, so light as to swim in water,
and composed of a spongy, and, as it were, spumous,
but pretty tenacious, parenchyma.
Soemmerring and
Reisseisen, über die Structur, die Verrichtung und
den
Gebrauch der Lungen. Zwey Preischriften. Berlin. 1808. 8vo.
Gebrauch der Lungen. Zwey Preischriften. Berlin. 1808. 8vo.
both by proximity and by relation of function, are two
viscera, large after birth, so light as to swim in water,
and composed of a spongy, and, as it were, spumous,
but pretty tenacious, parenchyma.
Respecting all the organs concerned in respiration, consult Corn.
J. Van
Der Bosch, Anatomia Systematis Respirationi inservientis Pathologica.
Harlem. 1801. 4to. p. 1–44.
Der Bosch, Anatomia Systematis Respirationi inservientis Pathologica.
Harlem. 1801. 4to. p. 1–44.
135. They fill each cavity of the chest, and are con-
tiguous to the sacs of the pleurae, to which, as well as
to the other contents of the thorax, they model and
apply themselves. (A)
tiguous to the sacs of the pleurae, to which, as well as
to the other contents of the thorax, they model and
apply themselves. (A)
136. They, in a manner, hang from the wind-pipe
usually called the aspera arteria, which, besides its
interior coat always smeared with mucus, and the sub-
jacent very sensible nervous coat, consists of another
which is muscular, surrounding the latter, and divided,
except posteriorly, by an indefinite number of cartila-
ginous falciform arches.
usually called the aspera arteria, which, besides its
interior coat always smeared with mucus, and the sub-
jacent very sensible nervous coat, consists of another
which is muscular, surrounding the latter, and divided,
except posteriorly, by an indefinite number of cartila-
ginous falciform arches.
137. The aspera arteria, having entered the thorax,
is bifurcated into the two bronchiae, and these, the
more deeply they penetrate into the lobes and lobules
of the lungs, are the more and more ramified, losing
is bifurcated into the two bronchiae, and these, the
more deeply they penetrate into the lobes and lobules
of the lungs, are the more and more ramified, losing
[85]
both their cartilaginous rings
and muscular coat, until
their extreme divisions terminate in those cells which
form the chief part of the substance of the lungs and
alternately receive and emit the air we breathe.
their extreme divisions terminate in those cells which
form the chief part of the substance of the lungs and
alternately receive and emit the air we breathe.
138. The shape and magnitude
various. The former is generally polyedrical. The
latter, in regard to surface, is scarcely to be defined:
though, indeed, the capacity of the lungs of an adult,
during a strong inspiration, is about 120 cubic inches.
The immense size to which the lungs may be inflated,
when the chest has been opened, has no relation to our
present subject.
Keil, indulging his
luxuriant iatro-mathematical genius, assigned more
than 1744,000,000 cells to each lung.
than 1744,000,000 cells to each lung.
various. The former is generally polyedrical. The
latter, in regard to surface, is scarcely to be defined:
Lieberkühn, with equal
exaggeration, made the surface of the cells equal
to 1500 square feet.
to 1500 square feet.
though, indeed, the capacity of the lungs of an adult,
during a strong inspiration, is about 120 cubic inches.
The immense size to which the lungs may be inflated,
when the chest has been opened, has no relation to our
present subject.
139. The cells are invested and connected by the
common but delicate mucous web, – the general vincu-
lum of the body, and must be carefully distinguished
from it. In healthy and very recent lungs, I have found
the cells so unconnected that they were distended in
one insulated spot by air cautiously inflated into a fine
branch of the bronchiae, while neither the neighbouring
cells nor the cellular membrane, which lies between
the cells, admitted a single portion. If air is forcibly
thrown in, the air cells are ruptured and confounded
with the cellular membrane, and both parts distended.
common but delicate mucous web, – the general vincu-
lum of the body, and must be carefully distinguished
from it. In healthy and very recent lungs, I have found
the cells so unconnected that they were distended in
one insulated spot by air cautiously inflated into a fine
branch of the bronchiae, while neither the neighbouring
cells nor the cellular membrane, which lies between
the cells, admitted a single portion. If air is forcibly
thrown in, the air cells are ruptured and confounded
with the cellular membrane, and both parts distended.
140. The mucous web surrounding the air cells of
the lungs is supplied with innumerable blood vessels –
divisions of the pulmonary artery and four pulmonary
veins, the branches of which accompany the ramifica-
tions of the bronchiae,
the lungs is supplied with innumerable blood vessels –
divisions of the pulmonary artery and four pulmonary
veins, the branches of which accompany the ramifica-
tions of the bronchiae,
Eustachius,
Tab. xxvii. fig. 13.
[86]
form at length a most
delicate and immense collection
of reticulated anastomoses. This extraordinary net-
work, penetrating the mucous web on every side,
closely surrounds the air cells, so that the prodigious
quantity of blood existing in the pulmonary vessels is
separated from the contact of the air by very fine mem-
branes only which Hales estimated as scarely 1/1000 of
an inch in thickness.
of reticulated anastomoses. This extraordinary net-
work, penetrating the mucous web on every side,
closely surrounds the air cells, so that the prodigious
quantity of blood existing in the pulmonary vessels is
separated from the contact of the air by very fine mem-
branes only which Hales estimated as scarely 1/1000 of
an inch in thickness.
141. As each ramification of the bronchiae possesses
a peculiar bunch or lobule of air cells, (139) so again
each of these possesses a peculiar system of blood
vessels, the twigs of which anastomose in the net-work
with one another, but scarcely at all with the blood-
vessels of the other lobules, as is proved by micros-
copic observations on living frogs and serpents, by
minute injections, and by the phenomena of vomicae
and other local diseases of the lungs.
a peculiar bunch or lobule of air cells, (139) so again
each of these possesses a peculiar system of blood
vessels, the twigs of which anastomose in the net-work
with one another, but scarcely at all with the blood-
vessels of the other lobules, as is proved by micros-
copic observations on living frogs and serpents, by
minute injections, and by the phenomena of vomicae
and other local diseases of the lungs.
142. The common membrane investing the lungs
is the chief seat of a remarkable net-work of lymphatic
vessels
bate glands,
neighbouring order of glands, called bronchial, that
are supplied with an excretory duct and are of the
conglomerate kind.
is the chief seat of a remarkable net-work of lymphatic
vessels
Mascagni,
Histor. vasor. lymphaticor. Tab.
xx.
bate glands,
Ibid. Tab.
xxi.
neighbouring order of glands, called bronchial, that
are supplied with an excretory duct and are of the
conglomerate kind.
Consult Portal,
Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris.
1780.
143. The thorax, which contains the lungs, has
an
osseous and cartilaginous base, somewhat resembling
a bee-hive, throughout very firm and stable, but in
every part more or less moveable for the purpose of
respiration.
osseous and cartilaginous base, somewhat resembling
a bee-hive, throughout very firm and stable, but in
every part more or less moveable for the purpose of
respiration.
J.G. Amstein
(Praes. Oetinger), De usu et actione musculor.
intercostal.
Tubing. 1769. 4to. Theod. Fr. Trendelenburg, Jun. De sterni costarumque in
respiratione vera genuinaque motus ratione. Gotting. 1779. 4to. Bordenave
and Sabatier, Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris. 1778.
Tubing. 1769. 4to. Theod. Fr. Trendelenburg, Jun. De sterni costarumque in
respiratione vera genuinaque motus ratione. Gotting. 1779. 4to. Bordenave
and Sabatier, Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris. 1778.
[87]
This holds good chiefly with the six pairs of true ribs
below the first pair, each of which is more moveable
than the one above in proportion to the greater length
both of its own body and of its cartilaginous appendix.
The cartilages are united by a kind of amphiarthrosis
to the margin of the sternum on each side. (B)
below the first pair, each of which is more moveable
than the one above in proportion to the greater length
both of its own body and of its cartilaginous appendix.
The cartilages are united by a kind of amphiarthrosis
to the margin of the sternum on each side. (B)
144. Between the edges of the ribs lie two strata of
intercostal muscles, differing in the direction of their
fibres, but conspiring to produce the same motion.
intercostal muscles, differing in the direction of their
fibres, but conspiring to produce the same motion.
At the base of the thorax, the diaphragm
tended in the form of an arch. It is a considerable
muscle, and, in the words of Haller, next in importance
to the heart. Its utility in the mechanical part of res-
piration was long since shewn, by the excellent expe-
riments of Galen
chiefly on the phrenic nerve.
Haller, Icon. Anat. fascic. 1, Tab. 1.
B.S. Albinus, Tab. musculor. Tab. xiv. fig. 5, 6,
7.
J.G. Röderer, De arcubus tendineis muscul. progr.
1. Gotting. 1760. 4to.
Santorini, Tab. Posth. x. fig. 1.
tended in the form of an arch. It is a considerable
muscle, and, in the words of Haller, next in importance
to the heart. Its utility in the mechanical part of res-
piration was long since shewn, by the excellent expe-
riments of Galen
De Anatomicis Administrationibus. L.
viii. cap. 8. The whole book is
full of experiments on respiration.
full of experiments on respiration.
chiefly on the phrenic nerve.
Ephr. Krüger, De nervo phrenico. Lips. 1759.; reprinted in
Sandifort’s
Thesaurus. Tom. iii.
Thesaurus. Tom. iii.
Walter, Tab. nervor. thorac. et abdominis. Tab.
1. fig. 1. n.I.
Its antagonists are the abdominal muscles, especially
the two oblique and the transverse.
the two oblique and the transverse.
145. The thorax thus constituted, is, after birth,
dilated by inspiration and subsequently reduced to a
smaller capacity by expiration.
dilated by inspiration and subsequently reduced to a
smaller capacity by expiration.
During the former act, the thorax is enlarged late-
[88]
rally and inferiorly, so
that the bodies of the six ribs
mentioned above (143) are elevated and their inferior
margin drawn somewhat outwards, and the arch of
the diaphragm at the same time rather depressed and
flattened.
mentioned above (143) are elevated and their inferior
margin drawn somewhat outwards, and the arch of
the diaphragm at the same time rather depressed and
flattened.
I have never observed the inferior extremity of the
sternum, in tranquil respiration, to be thrust forwards,
as some have asserted. (C)
sternum, in tranquil respiration, to be thrust forwards,
as some have asserted. (C)
146. This alternate motion of the chest continues,
during health and freedom from restraint, from the
hour of birth till death. Its object is, that the lungs
may be expanded to admit the air and contracted to
expel it, in perpetual alternation. This alternation
occurs, in an adult at rest, about 14 times in a minute,
– once to about five pulsations of the heart.
during health and freedom from restraint, from the
hour of birth till death. Its object is, that the lungs
may be expanded to admit the air and contracted to
expel it, in perpetual alternation. This alternation
occurs, in an adult at rest, about 14 times in a minute,
– once to about five pulsations of the heart.
147. For man, in common with all warm-blooded
animals, cannot long retain the inspired air, but is
compelled to discharge it and take in a fresh supply
of this pabulum of life, as it always has been denomi-
nated.
pure may be the air entering the lungs, it instantly
undergoes remarkable changes, by which it is con-
taminated and rendered unfit for another inspiration,
unless it is renewed.
animals, cannot long retain the inspired air, but is
compelled to discharge it and take in a fresh supply
of this pabulum of life, as it always has been denomi-
nated.
The antiquity of the
notion that air is the pabulum vitae, is seen in
the
book de Flatibus, usually ascribed to Hippocrates. The author regards the
aliment as three-fold – victuals, drink, and air: but the latter he calls vital,
because we cannot dispense with a perpetual supply of it without danger to life.
book de Flatibus, usually ascribed to Hippocrates. The author regards the
aliment as three-fold – victuals, drink, and air: but the latter he calls vital,
because we cannot dispense with a perpetual supply of it without danger to life.
pure may be the air entering the lungs, it instantly
undergoes remarkable changes, by which it is con-
taminated and rendered unfit for another inspiration,
unless it is renewed.
Consult Harvey’s Dispute
upon the necessary renovation of the aërial succus
alibilis, with the celebrated Astronomical Professor, J. Greaves, in the latter’s
Description of the Pyramids in Egypt. p. 101 sq. Lond. 1646. 8vo. Also the
immortal and popular Edm. Halley’s Discourse concerning the means of fur-
nishing air at the Bottom of the Sea in any ordinary Depths. – Phil. Trans.
vol. xxix. No. 349. p. 492 sq.
alibilis, with the celebrated Astronomical Professor, J. Greaves, in the latter’s
Description of the Pyramids in Egypt. p. 101 sq. Lond. 1646. 8vo. Also the
immortal and popular Edm. Halley’s Discourse concerning the means of fur-
nishing air at the Bottom of the Sea in any ordinary Depths. – Phil. Trans.
vol. xxix. No. 349. p. 492 sq.
[89]
148. It may be asked what are the changes which
the air experiences during inspiration, and which con-
sist not in the loss of elasticity, as was formerly
imagined, but in the decomposition of its elements.
For the atmospheric air which we breathe, is a singular
mixture of constituents, differing very much in their
nature from each other; and, not to mention hetero-
geneous matters, such as odorous effluvia, various
exhalations, and innumerable others which are gene-
rally present, is always impregnated with aqueous
vapour, electric and magnetic matter, and generally
with carbonic acid gas; and is itself composed of
unequal parts of two aëriform fluids, viz. 79 of azotic
gas, and 21 of oxygen gas in 100.
the air experiences during inspiration, and which con-
sist not in the loss of elasticity, as was formerly
imagined, but in the decomposition of its elements.
Fr. Sromeyer, Grundiss der theoretischen Chemie. P. ii. p.
619.
For the atmospheric air which we breathe, is a singular
mixture of constituents, differing very much in their
nature from each other; and, not to mention hetero-
geneous matters, such as odorous effluvia, various
exhalations, and innumerable others which are gene-
rally present, is always impregnated with aqueous
vapour, electric and magnetic matter, and generally
with carbonic acid gas; and is itself composed of
unequal parts of two aëriform fluids, viz. 79 of azotic
gas, and 21 of oxygen gas in 100.
149. In the first place we know for certain, that at
every inspiration (the fulness of which varies infinitely
in different men of the same age, breathing placidly
besides the quantity of azotic gas being somewhat
diminished,
converted into carbonic acid gas, or fixed air; so that
the air of expiration, if collected, instantly extinguishes
flame and live coals, precipitates lime from lime water,
and is specifically heavier than atmospheric air, and
rendered unfit for respiration;
every inspiration (the fulness of which varies infinitely
in different men of the same age, breathing placidly
Consult for instance
Abildgaard, Nordisch. Archiv. für Naturkunde,
&c.
T. 1. P.i. and ii.
T. 1. P.i. and ii.
besides the quantity of azotic gas being somewhat
diminished,
Consult, besides Priestley and others, especially C.H. Peaff, ib.
T. iv. P. ii.
converted into carbonic acid gas, or fixed air; so that
the air of expiration, if collected, instantly extinguishes
flame and live coals, precipitates lime from lime water,
and is specifically heavier than atmospheric air, and
rendered unfit for respiration;
To discover how frequently an animal could breathe the same portion
of air,
I took three dogs equal in size and strength, and to the trachea of the first, by
means of a tube, I tied a bladder, containing about 20 cubic inches of oxygen
gas. He died in 14 minutes.
I took three dogs equal in size and strength, and to the trachea of the first, by
means of a tube, I tied a bladder, containing about 20 cubic inches of oxygen
gas. He died in 14 minutes.
For the second, the bladder was filled with atmospheric air. He died in
six minutes.
six minutes.
For the third, I
employed the carbonised air expired by the second dog.
He died in four minutes.
He died in four minutes.
The air of the bladder, upon subsequent examination, gave the common
signs
of carbonic acid gas. The instruments which I employed are described and
illustrated by a plate in the Medic. Biblioth. Vol. 1. p. 174 sq. tab. 1.
of carbonic acid gas. The instruments which I employed are described and
illustrated by a plate in the Medic. Biblioth. Vol. 1. p. 174 sq. tab. 1.
[90]
aqueous
vapour, which is condensed in a visible form
by a temperature of 60° of Fahr.
by a temperature of 60° of Fahr.
J.A. De Luc, Idées sur la Météorologie. tom. ii. p. 67.
229.
150. It is therefore probable, that, during inspira-
tion, the base of the oxygenous portion is set at liberty,
and, being united with the arterial blood, is conveyed
throughout the system; while the carbon and hydrogen
are brought back with the venous blood to the right
side of the heart, and thrown off like smoke, as the
ancients expressed it, in the lungs.
tion, the base of the oxygenous portion is set at liberty,
and, being united with the arterial blood, is conveyed
throughout the system; while the carbon and hydrogen
are brought back with the venous blood to the right
side of the heart, and thrown off like smoke, as the
ancients expressed it, in the lungs.
Rob. Menzies, De Respiratione. Edinb. 1790. 8vo.
H.G. Rouppe on the same subject. Lugd. Batav. 1791. 4to.
J. Bostock, Versuch über das Athemolen. übers.
von A.F. Nolde. Erf.
1809. 8vo.
1809. 8vo.
The more florid colour of the arterial blood,
darker of the venous, and the analogous appearance of
the blood, if exposed to the gases in question, (13)
correspond admirably with this theory. Some diffi-
culties, indeed, remain to be solved, v.c. how the
carbon can be united in the lungs with the oxygen, so
as to fly off in the form of carbonic acid gas. (C)
J. Andr.
Scherer, Beweis dass J. Mayow vor 100 Jahren den Grund
zur
antiphlogistischen Chemie und Physiologie gelegt hat. p. 104. Edm. Godwyn,
Connexion of Life with Respiration. Lond. 1788. 8vo. J. Hunter, On the
Blood. p. 68. J.A. Albers, Beyträgen zur Anat. und Physiol. der Thiere.
P. 1. p. 108.
antiphlogistischen Chemie und Physiologie gelegt hat. p. 104. Edm. Godwyn,
Connexion of Life with Respiration. Lond. 1788. 8vo. J. Hunter, On the
Blood. p. 68. J.A. Albers, Beyträgen zur Anat. und Physiol. der Thiere.
P. 1. p. 108.
darker of the venous, and the analogous appearance of
the blood, if exposed to the gases in question, (13)
correspond admirably with this theory. Some diffi-
culties, indeed, remain to be solved, v.c. how the
carbon can be united in the lungs with the oxygen, so
as to fly off in the form of carbonic acid gas. (C)
See J.
Brugnatelli, Elementi di Chimica. T. 1. p. 155.
J. Fr. Gmelin,
De Acidorum origine ex aëre vitali adhuc dubia in the Comment. Soc. Reg. Sc.
Gotting. T. xiii.
De Acidorum origine ex aëre vitali adhuc dubia in the Comment. Soc. Reg. Sc.
Gotting. T. xiii.
151. This perpetual change of elements occurring in
[91]
respiration after birth, we
shall show to be very diffe-
rently accomplished in the foetus, viz. by means of the
connection of the gravid uterus with the placenta.
But when the child is born and capable of volition, the
congestion of blood that takes place in the aorta, from
the obstruction in the umbilical arteries; the danger of
suffocation from the cessation of those changes of the
blood, in regard to oxygen and carbon, (13) hitherto
produced in the uterine placenta; the novel impression
of that element into which the child, hitherto an aquatic
being, is conveyed; the cooler temperature to which it
is now exposed; and the many new stimuli which are
now applied, seem to induce new motions in the body,
especially the dilatation of the chest and the first
inspiration.
rently accomplished in the foetus, viz. by means of the
connection of the gravid uterus with the placenta.
But when the child is born and capable of volition, the
congestion of blood that takes place in the aorta, from
the obstruction in the umbilical arteries; the danger of
suffocation from the cessation of those changes of the
blood, in regard to oxygen and carbon, (13) hitherto
produced in the uterine placenta; the novel impression
of that element into which the child, hitherto an aquatic
being, is conveyed; the cooler temperature to which it
is now exposed; and the many new stimuli which are
now applied, seem to induce new motions in the body,
especially the dilatation of the chest and the first
inspiration.
The lungs being for the first time dilated by inspi-
ration, open a new channel to the blood, so that,
being obstructed in the umbilical arteries, it is derived
to the chest.
ration, open a new channel to the blood, so that,
being obstructed in the umbilical arteries, it is derived
to the chest.
Since the inspired air becomes hurtful and unplea-
sant to the lungs by the decomposition which it expe-
riences, I should ascribe to the most simple corrective
powers of nature, the subsequent motion by which the
poisonous mephitis, as it may be called, is expelled
and exchanged for a fresh supply.
sant to the lungs by the decomposition which it expe-
riences, I should ascribe to the most simple corrective
powers of nature, the subsequent motion by which the
poisonous mephitis, as it may be called, is expelled
and exchanged for a fresh supply.
The consideration of all these circumstances, espe-
cially if the importance of respiration to circulation,
demonstrated by the well-known experiment of Hooke,
cially if the importance of respiration to circulation,
demonstrated by the well-known experiment of Hooke,
It bears the epithet
Hookian, because it was most adorned by Rob. Hooke.
See Th. Sprat, History of the Royal Society. Lond. 1667. 4to. p. 232. But
it was before instituted by Vesalius, and very much praised for its beauty.
De c.h. Fabrica. p. 824.
See Th. Sprat, History of the Royal Society. Lond. 1667. 4to. p. 232. But
it was before instituted by Vesalius, and very much praised for its beauty.
De c.h. Fabrica. p. 824.
[92]
be remembered, will, in my opinion, explain the
cele-
brated problem of Harvey
attempts of physiologists. (D)
brated problem of Harvey
Wm. Harvey, De circulat. sanguin. ad J. Riolan. p. 258.
Glasgov.
1751. 12mo.; and especially his Exerc. de gener. Animalium. p. 263. Lond.
1651. 4to.
1751. 12mo.; and especially his Exerc. de gener. Animalium. p. 263. Lond.
1651. 4to.
See Theod. G. Aug. Roose,
Uber das Ersticken neugebohrner Kinder.
in
his Physiologisch. Untersuchungen. Brunsw. 1796. 8vo. J.D. Herholdt,
De vita imprimis foetus humani, ejusque morte sub partu. Havn. 1802. 8vo.
his Physiologisch. Untersuchungen. Brunsw. 1796. 8vo. J.D. Herholdt,
De vita imprimis foetus humani, ejusque morte sub partu. Havn. 1802. 8vo.
attempts of physiologists. (D)
Consult, for example, Petr. J. Daoustenc, De Respiratione. Lugd. 1743.
4to. p. 54 sq. Rob. Whytt, on the Vital and other involuntary motions of
animals. p. 222. Edinb. 1751. 8vo.
4to. p. 54 sq. Rob. Whytt, on the Vital and other involuntary motions of
animals. p. 222. Edinb. 1751. 8vo.
NOTES.
(A) A correct notion can scarcely be formed from this descrip-
tion. The pleura is two closed sacs, one of which lies over each
lung, one portion of the sac adhering closely to it, and one lying
over this again; the internal surfaces of both portions are always
in contact, because, if the parietes of the thorax expand and
draw with them the external portion, the lung at the same time
expands with air and forces out the internal in the same degree.
It is commonly said that a portion of fluid (not vapour) exists
in serous membranes for the purpose of lubrication. The late
Dr. Marshal, however, proved that this is not the case, but that
whenever fluid is discovered, we must regard it as the effect of
either disease or the struggle of dying. His experiments were
made on the ventricles of the brain, the theca vertebralis, the
pleura, and the pericardium.
tion. The pleura is two closed sacs, one of which lies over each
lung, one portion of the sac adhering closely to it, and one lying
over this again; the internal surfaces of both portions are always
in contact, because, if the parietes of the thorax expand and
draw with them the external portion, the lung at the same time
expands with air and forces out the internal in the same degree.
It is commonly said that a portion of fluid (not vapour) exists
in serous membranes for the purpose of lubrication. The late
Dr. Marshal, however, proved that this is not the case, but that
whenever fluid is discovered, we must regard it as the effect of
either disease or the struggle of dying. His experiments were
made on the ventricles of the brain, the theca vertebralis, the
pleura, and the pericardium.
The Morbid Anatomy of the Brain in Mania,
Hydrophobia, &c.
These membranes during life and health are transparent. At
least M. Richerand tells us that on removing a portion of the
least M. Richerand tells us that on removing a portion of the
[93]
thorax when cutting away a
cancer, he saw the heart through
the pericardium.
the pericardium.
Journal de Médecine.
1818.
(B) Although each lower rib must execute a greater extent of
motion from being longer than the one above, yet the first is
asserted by M. Majendie to be absolutely more moveable than
the second, the second than the third, &c.: and this because the
first has but one articular surface, is articulated with but one
vertebra, and possesses neither internal nor costo-transverse liga-
ment, and has the posterior ligament horizontal, and because
slight shades of difference exist in the disposition of the liga-
ments of the six other ribs.
motion from being longer than the one above, yet the first is
asserted by M. Majendie to be absolutely more moveable than
the second, the second than the third, &c.: and this because the
first has but one articular surface, is articulated with but one
vertebra, and possesses neither internal nor costo-transverse liga-
ment, and has the posterior ligament horizontal, and because
slight shades of difference exist in the disposition of the liga-
ments of the six other ribs.
Precis Elémentaire. Tome ii. p. 270.
(C) To Dr. Carson we are indebted for the best account of
the mechanical part of respiration.
the mechanical part of respiration.
The substance of the lungs is highly elastic, and constantly
kept in a forced state of distention after birth by the pressure of
the atmosphere. This is evident, as upon puncturing the walls
of the thorax, the lungs instantly collapse, – a circumstance
arising from the atmospheric pressure on the one hand becoming
counterbalanced on the other, so that their elasticity, expe-
riencing no opposition, becomes effective. During inspiration,
the intercostal muscles raise and draw out the ribs, and the dia-
phragm descends: the enlargement of the thoracic cavity is
instantly followed of necessity by the greater distention of the
substance of the lungs from the diminished resistance to the
atmosphere gravitating in the bronchiae. The diaphragm and
intercostal muscles ceasing to act, the substance of the lungs
exerts its elasticity with effect, recovers its former dimensions,
and drives out the additional volume of air just admitted, and
the passive diaphragm and intercostal muscles follow the shrink-
ing substance of the lungs, offering, from their relaxation, no
resistance to the atmosphere pressing on the surface of the chest
and abdomen. Thus expiration is produced. The muscular
kept in a forced state of distention after birth by the pressure of
the atmosphere. This is evident, as upon puncturing the walls
of the thorax, the lungs instantly collapse, – a circumstance
arising from the atmospheric pressure on the one hand becoming
counterbalanced on the other, so that their elasticity, expe-
riencing no opposition, becomes effective. During inspiration,
the intercostal muscles raise and draw out the ribs, and the dia-
phragm descends: the enlargement of the thoracic cavity is
instantly followed of necessity by the greater distention of the
substance of the lungs from the diminished resistance to the
atmosphere gravitating in the bronchiae. The diaphragm and
intercostal muscles ceasing to act, the substance of the lungs
exerts its elasticity with effect, recovers its former dimensions,
and drives out the additional volume of air just admitted, and
the passive diaphragm and intercostal muscles follow the shrink-
ing substance of the lungs, offering, from their relaxation, no
resistance to the atmosphere pressing on the surface of the chest
and abdomen. Thus expiration is produced. The muscular
[94]
power of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles is far greater
than the elastic power of the lungs, and therefore, when exerted,
overcomes it, producing inspiration: but, ceasing to be exerted,
the elastic power gains efficiency, and produces expiration.
than the elastic power of the lungs, and therefore, when exerted,
overcomes it, producing inspiration: but, ceasing to be exerted,
the elastic power gains efficiency, and produces expiration.
“The contractile power of the diaphragm (and intercostal
muscles) in conformity with the laws of muscular motion, is irre-
gular, remitting and sometimes altogether quiescent. The elas-
ticity of the lungs, on the other hand, is equal and constant.
The superior energy of the former is balanced by the permanency
of the latter. By the advantage which the inferior power, from
the uniformity of its operations, is enabled to take of the remis-
sions of its more powerful antagonist, the ground which had
been lost is recovered, and the contest prolonged; that contest
in which victory declaring on one side or the other is the instant
death of the fabric.”
L.c.p. 223.
In the common account of respiration, the elasticity of the
lungs is unnoticed, and expiration is ascribed to the contractions
of the abdominal muscles. Now in the first place, the elasticity
of the lungs is of itself sufficient for the purpose; and in the
second, there is no proof of the agency of these muscles in
expiration. It proceeds equally well in cases of inanition, when
their contraction would rather enlarge than diminish the abdo-
minal cavity, and in experiments when they are entirely removed
from animals.
lungs is unnoticed, and expiration is ascribed to the contractions
of the abdominal muscles. Now in the first place, the elasticity
of the lungs is of itself sufficient for the purpose; and in the
second, there is no proof of the agency of these muscles in
expiration. It proceeds equally well in cases of inanition, when
their contraction would rather enlarge than diminish the abdo-
minal cavity, and in experiments when they are entirely removed
from animals.
The beautiful contrivance in the shape of the thorax deserves
attention: by its being conical, every degree of motion in the
diaphragm produces a greater effect on the capacity of the chest
than could occur were it of any other shape.
attention: by its being conical, every degree of motion in the
diaphragm produces a greater effect on the capacity of the chest
than could occur were it of any other shape.
The vacuum constantly threatening in the chest, either from
the shrinking of the lungs or the contraction of the inspiratory
muscles, and I may add from the expulsion of blood from the
ventricles of the heart, will evidently be prevented, not only by
the falling of the ribs and the ascent of the diaphragm in the
the shrinking of the lungs or the contraction of the inspiratory
muscles, and I may add from the expulsion of blood from the
ventricles of the heart, will evidently be prevented, not only by
the falling of the ribs and the ascent of the diaphragm in the
[95]
former case, and ingress of additional air into the
bronchiae in
the latter, but also by the flow of venous blood into the auricles:
for the venous blood, being subject to the full atmospheric pres-
sure without the chest, will necessarily be driven into the chest
to prevent a vacuum; the arterial blood is under the same cir-
cumstances, but the propelling force of the ventricles prevents
its retrogression. The atmospheric pressure on the blood-vessels
creates a necessity for greater strength in the ventricles, as it
impedes the progress of blood from the heart, but it also faci-
litates the return. Thus the smaller pressure on the heart acts,
by the intervention of the blood, as an antagonist to its con-
tracting fibres, assisting to dilate them when they become relaxed.
the latter, but also by the flow of venous blood into the auricles:
for the venous blood, being subject to the full atmospheric pres-
sure without the chest, will necessarily be driven into the chest
to prevent a vacuum; the arterial blood is under the same cir-
cumstances, but the propelling force of the ventricles prevents
its retrogression. The atmospheric pressure on the blood-vessels
creates a necessity for greater strength in the ventricles, as it
impedes the progress of blood from the heart, but it also faci-
litates the return. Thus the smaller pressure on the heart acts,
by the intervention of the blood, as an antagonist to its con-
tracting fibres, assisting to dilate them when they become relaxed.
By the tendency to a vacuum in the cavity of the thorax, what
effect the heart loses by atmospheric resistance without the chest
is exactly compensated within, and thus on the whole the heart
neither gains nor loses by all the various directions of atmos-
pheric pressure.
effect the heart loses by atmospheric resistance without the chest
is exactly compensated within, and thus on the whole the heart
neither gains nor loses by all the various directions of atmos-
pheric pressure.
In the foetus the case is precisely the same, although Dr. Carson
has imagined it different, and thought it necessary to frame a
little hypothesis to reconcile circumstances. The foetal lungs,
experiencing no atmospheric pressure, are contracted to the
utmost, and the diaphragm suffering no stimulus from the will
on account of uneasy sensation arising from want of breath, is
completely relaxed and forced upwards, to remove the vacuum,
and the venous blood without the thorax must, for the same rea-
son, be drawn forcibly into the right auricle, preventing the
vacuum which the shrunk state of the lungs, and the discharges
of blood from the left ventricle, tend to produce.
has imagined it different, and thought it necessary to frame a
little hypothesis to reconcile circumstances. The foetal lungs,
experiencing no atmospheric pressure, are contracted to the
utmost, and the diaphragm suffering no stimulus from the will
on account of uneasy sensation arising from want of breath, is
completely relaxed and forced upwards, to remove the vacuum,
and the venous blood without the thorax must, for the same rea-
son, be drawn forcibly into the right auricle, preventing the
vacuum which the shrunk state of the lungs, and the discharges
of blood from the left ventricle, tend to produce.
The cause of the first inspiration appears to be the novel im-
pression of cool air upon the surface, for if at any time we are
suddenly exposed to a cold wind or plunge into cold water, the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles instantly contract and a quick
inspiration takes place. The blood rushes into the expanded
lungs, and being afterwards obstructed when the inspiratory
muscles cease to act, and the elastic lungs shrink, gives rise to
pression of cool air upon the surface, for if at any time we are
suddenly exposed to a cold wind or plunge into cold water, the
diaphragm and intercostal muscles instantly contract and a quick
inspiration takes place. The blood rushes into the expanded
lungs, and being afterwards obstructed when the inspiratory
muscles cease to act, and the elastic lungs shrink, gives rise to
[96]
an uneasy
sensation, which is instinctively removed by another
inspiration, and thus respiration afterwards continues through
life. The fact of respiration commencing before the chord is
tied, shows that neither the congestion in the aorta, nor the
deficiency of chemical changes, is the cause of the first
inspiration.
inspiration, and thus respiration afterwards continues through
life. The fact of respiration commencing before the chord is
tied, shows that neither the congestion in the aorta, nor the
deficiency of chemical changes, is the cause of the first
inspiration.
The elasticity of the lungs is not sufficiently great to expel
the whole of their air in expiration, whence they remain con-
stantly in a certain degree of distention, and the course of the
blood through them is never completely obstructed by expiration.
the whole of their air in expiration, whence they remain con-
stantly in a certain degree of distention, and the course of the
blood through them is never completely obstructed by expiration.
(D) It is now ascertained, that no oxygen is absorbed in ordi-
nary respiration, but that what disappears goes entirely to unite
with the carbon of the blood and produce carbonic acid, the
latter being exactly equal in bulk to the oxygen that disappears, –
about 27 1/2 cubic inches per minute, or 39,534 in 24 hours,
according to the experiments of Messrs. Allen and Pepys, – a
quantity containing about 11 oz. troy of solid carbon, and per-
haps about double the average result of most other experiments.
Mr. Ellis
and unites with the oxygen externally, and Dr. Prout thinks
this opinion corroborated by a fact stated by Orfila,
phosphorus dissolved in oil is injected into the blood vessels,
vapours of phosphorous acid stream from the mouth and nos-
trils, which would hardly have occurred if the acid had been
formed in the vessels, as it would probably have remained in
solution in the blood, not being volatile: – the phosphorus was
probably excreted from the vessels in minute subdivision, and
united with the oxygen of the atmosphere upon coming in con-
tact with it, producing phosphorous acid; and the same may
be imagined respecting the carbonic.
served that if respiration of the same air was breathed repeatedly,
some oxygen was absorbed; and that if nearly pure oxygen was
nary respiration, but that what disappears goes entirely to unite
with the carbon of the blood and produce carbonic acid, the
latter being exactly equal in bulk to the oxygen that disappears, –
about 27 1/2 cubic inches per minute, or 39,534 in 24 hours,
according to the experiments of Messrs. Allen and Pepys, – a
quantity containing about 11 oz. troy of solid carbon, and per-
haps about double the average result of most other experiments.
Mr. Ellis
On Respiration.
and unites with the oxygen externally, and Dr. Prout thinks
this opinion corroborated by a fact stated by Orfila,
Toxicologie Generale.
phosphorus dissolved in oil is injected into the blood vessels,
vapours of phosphorous acid stream from the mouth and nos-
trils, which would hardly have occurred if the acid had been
formed in the vessels, as it would probably have remained in
solution in the blood, not being volatile: – the phosphorus was
probably excreted from the vessels in minute subdivision, and
united with the oxygen of the atmosphere upon coming in con-
tact with it, producing phosphorous acid; and the same may
be imagined respecting the carbonic.
Thomson’s Annals of
Philosophy. 1819.
served that if respiration of the same air was breathed repeatedly,
some oxygen was absorbed; and that if nearly pure oxygen was
[97]
employed
in the case of guinea-pigs, pure carbonic acid was
produced and a portion of the oxygen replaced by nitrogen, this
portion, however, decreasing as the experiment proceeded. The
use of the nitrogen that we respire is unknown.
produced and a portion of the oxygen replaced by nitrogen, this
portion, however, decreasing as the experiment proceeded. The
use of the nitrogen that we respire is unknown.
The universality of respiration or something analogous among
living beings,
ance, render it probable, as my friend Dr. Prout justly remarks, that
it does something more than discharge a little superfluous carbon.
He considers galvanism as an instrument extensively used by the
vital principle, and since galvanism must be produced by the
combination of carbon with oxygen, as it is in the battery by
the union of the metal and oxygen, one great additional purpose
of respiration becomes highly probable.
living beings,
Fish and crustacea purify their
blood by the air contained in the water
that they draw over their gills, and the former not only discharge carbon but
absorb oxygen and azote (Mem. d’Arcueil. ii. 55.): the syren lacertina and
proteus anguina have both gills and lungs: insects have no lungs but openings
on the surface of the body leading to air-vessels that are distributed in the
interior. All the experiments of naturalists made it appear that no animal
could live without air, but M. Biot has lately asserted that what his countrymen
call blaps and tenebrions remain in as good a vacuum as can be formed for
any length of time without apparent inconvenience. Animals found in the
secretions and blood vessels of others must live without atmospheric air.
Vegetables occasion the same changes in the air as animals. – Ellis, Further
inquiries into the changes induced in atmospheric air, &c.
that they draw over their gills, and the former not only discharge carbon but
absorb oxygen and azote (Mem. d’Arcueil. ii. 55.): the syren lacertina and
proteus anguina have both gills and lungs: insects have no lungs but openings
on the surface of the body leading to air-vessels that are distributed in the
interior. All the experiments of naturalists made it appear that no animal
could live without air, but M. Biot has lately asserted that what his countrymen
call blaps and tenebrions remain in as good a vacuum as can be formed for
any length of time without apparent inconvenience. Animals found in the
secretions and blood vessels of others must live without atmospheric air.
Vegetables occasion the same changes in the air as animals. – Ellis, Further
inquiries into the changes induced in atmospheric air, &c.
ance, render it probable, as my friend Dr. Prout justly remarks, that
it does something more than discharge a little superfluous carbon.
Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy.
1814.
He considers galvanism as an instrument extensively used by the
vital principle, and since galvanism must be produced by the
combination of carbon with oxygen, as it is in the battery by
the union of the metal and oxygen, one great additional purpose
of respiration becomes highly probable.
Dr. Prout and Dr. Fyfe have found the quantity of carbonic
acid gas experience uniform variations. It is diminished by
mercury, nitric acid, vegetable diet, tea, substances containing
alcohol, depressing passions, and fatigue, and undergoes an
increase from day-break till noon, and a decrease from noon
till sun-set, remaining at the minimum till day-break.
experiments of Allen and Pepys, the formation of carbonic acid
gas slackened when the guinea-pigs fell asleep.
acid gas experience uniform variations. It is diminished by
mercury, nitric acid, vegetable diet, tea, substances containing
alcohol, depressing passions, and fatigue, and undergoes an
increase from day-break till noon, and a decrease from noon
till sun-set, remaining at the minimum till day-break.
l.c. Dissert. Inaugur. &c. Edinb. 1814. The
smallest quantity yet ob-
served was in a diabetic patient of mine, taking very large doses of opium and
nux vomica.
served was in a diabetic patient of mine, taking very large doses of opium and
nux vomica.
experiments of Allen and Pepys, the formation of carbonic acid
gas slackened when the guinea-pigs fell asleep.
[98]
The average number of respirations in a minute in adults is
probably twenty.
probably twenty.
The common quantity of air taken in at each inspiration is 16.5
cubic inches, and the quantity remaining after death in the lungs
of a stout adult man, about 100 cubic inches, according to Allen
and Pepys.
cubic inches, and the quantity remaining after death in the lungs
of a stout adult man, about 100 cubic inches, according to Allen
and Pepys.
The quantity of aqueous vapour emitted by the lungs in expi-
ration may be about 20 oz. in 24 hours.
ration may be about 20 oz. in 24 hours.
Thomson, System of
Chemistry. vol. iv.
Camphor, phosphorus, ether, diluted alcohol, gases, and va-
rious odorous substances, when introduced into the system escape
in some measure by the lungs.
rious odorous substances, when introduced into the system escape
in some measure by the lungs.
(E) The experiment consisted in laying the lungs completely
bare, and supporting life by carrying on respiration artificially.
Hooke varied it by pricking the surface of the lungs and forcing
a continued stream of air through them. The following are the
words of Harvey:
bare, and supporting life by carrying on respiration artificially.
Hooke varied it by pricking the surface of the lungs and forcing
a continued stream of air through them. The following are the
words of Harvey:
“It would appear that the use of expiration
is to purify and ventilate the blood, by separating from it these
noxious and fuliginous vapours.”
[99]
SECT. IX.
OF THE VOICE AND SPEECH.
152. We have described the chief use of
respiration.
We shall hereafter mention how far it contributes to the
conversion of the chyle into blood, and to the support
of almost the whole class of natural functions. Its
other uses are at present to be considered.
We shall hereafter mention how far it contributes to the
conversion of the chyle into blood, and to the support
of almost the whole class of natural functions. Its
other uses are at present to be considered.
And first, respecting the voice.
after birth, and proceeds from the lungs, as was ob-
served long ago by Aristotle, who called those animals
only vocal, which breathed by means of lungs. The
voice is, properly speaking, a sound, formed, by means
of expiration, in the larynx, which is a most beauti-
fully constructed organ, fixed upon the top of the
windpipe, like a capital upon a pillar.
Th. Young, Philos. Trans. 1800. P.
1.
after birth, and proceeds from the lungs, as was ob-
served long ago by Aristotle, who called those animals
only vocal, which breathed by means of lungs. The
voice is, properly speaking, a sound, formed, by means
of expiration, in the larynx, which is a most beauti-
fully constructed organ, fixed upon the top of the
windpipe, like a capital upon a pillar.
Jan. Marg. Busch, De Mechanismo organi Vocis hujusque
functione.
Groning. 1770. 4to.
Groning. 1770. 4to.
153. The larynx is composed of various cartilages,
which being united together in the form, as it were,
of a little box,
wonderful apparatus of muscles,
gether, or separately, according to the variations of
the voice.
which being united together in the form, as it were,
of a little box,
Soemmerring, Icones organorum Gustus et
Vocis. Francof. 1808. fol.
wonderful apparatus of muscles,
B.S. Albinus, Tab. Muscul. Tab. X. fig.
1–15. Tab. XI. fig. 45–48.
Tab. XII. fig. 1–7.
Tab. XII. fig. 1–7.
gether, or separately, according to the variations of
the voice.
[100]
154. The part of the larynx most concerned in pro-
ducing the voice, is the glottis, or narrow opening of
the windpipe, having the epiglottis suspended, and, in
a manner, fixed upon it. It is clearly ascertained, that
the air, expired from the lungs, and striking properly
upon the margins of the glottis, becomes sonorous.
ducing the voice, is the glottis, or narrow opening of
the windpipe, having the epiglottis suspended, and, in
a manner, fixed upon it. It is clearly ascertained, that
the air, expired from the lungs, and striking properly
upon the margins of the glottis, becomes sonorous.
155. But it has been disputed what changes the
glottis undergoes in modulating the voice: whether it
is alternately widened and constricted, as Galen and
Dodart supposed, or whether, according to Ferrein,
the variations of voice are effected rather by the tension
and relaxation of its ligaments.
glottis undergoes in modulating the voice: whether it
is alternately widened and constricted, as Galen and
Dodart supposed, or whether, according to Ferrein,
the variations of voice are effected rather by the tension
and relaxation of its ligaments.
The latter, consistently with his opinion, compared
the larynx to a violin; the former, more consistently
with nature, to a flute.
the larynx to a violin; the former, more consistently
with nature, to a flute.
Kratzenstein viewed the glottis and larynx as a kind of drum, with
its head
bisected. Tentamen de natura et charactere Sonorum Litterarum Vocalium.
Petrop. 1781. 4to. I would, in some sense, compare it to an Eolian harp,
particularly one of the description found by Labillardiére in Amboyna. Voyage
à la Recherche de la Pérouse. T. i. p. 326.
bisected. Tentamen de natura et charactere Sonorum Litterarum Vocalium.
Petrop. 1781. 4to. I would, in some sense, compare it to an Eolian harp,
particularly one of the description found by Labillardiére in Amboyna. Voyage
à la Recherche de la Pérouse. T. i. p. 326.
Every thing considered, we must conclude that the
glottis, when sounding, experiences both kinds of
changes; since the grave and acute modulation of the
voice must depend very much upon the alterations
produced in the glottis by the ligaments, especially the
inferior thyreo-arytenoids – the vocal chords of Ferrein,
and by the corresponding modification of the sinuses or
ventricles of the larynx.
glottis, when sounding, experiences both kinds of
changes; since the grave and acute modulation of the
voice must depend very much upon the alterations
produced in the glottis by the ligaments, especially the
inferior thyreo-arytenoids – the vocal chords of Ferrein,
and by the corresponding modification of the sinuses or
ventricles of the larynx.
See some experiments made at Gottingen with the view of settling
this
controversy, in J.G. Runge’s Dissertation De Voce ejusque Organis. L.B.
1753. 4to. Also consult Jos. Ballanti, Commentar. Instituti Bonon. T. vi.
and Vicq.-d’Azyr, Mém. de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris. 1779.
controversy, in J.G. Runge’s Dissertation De Voce ejusque Organis. L.B.
1753. 4to. Also consult Jos. Ballanti, Commentar. Instituti Bonon. T. vi.
and Vicq.-d’Azyr, Mém. de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris. 1779.
156. That every degree of motion in the glottis is
directed by the numerous muscles of the larynx, is
directed by the numerous muscles of the larynx, is
[101]
proved by the beautiful experiment of tying or
dividing
the recurrent nerves, or par vagum,
ing or destroying the voice of the animal. (A)
the recurrent nerves, or par vagum,
Respecting this celebrated experiment, anciently made by Galen,
consult
among others W. Courten, Philos. Trans. N. 335. Morgagni, Ep. Anatom.
xii. No. 20. P.P. Molinelli, Comment. Instituti Bonon. Tom. iii. J. Haighton,
Memoirs of the Medical Society of London. T. iii.
among others W. Courten, Philos. Trans. N. 335. Morgagni, Ep. Anatom.
xii. No. 20. P.P. Molinelli, Comment. Instituti Bonon. Tom. iii. J. Haighton,
Memoirs of the Medical Society of London. T. iii.
ing or destroying the voice of the animal. (A)
157. Man and singing birds have the power of
whistling. In the latter, it is accomplished by a larynx
placed at each extremity of the wind-pipe and divided
into two portions. The former, though possessing a
single and undivided larynx, has only learned, I ima-
gine, to imitate birds by the coarctation of his lips.
whistling. In the latter, it is accomplished by a larynx
placed at each extremity of the wind-pipe and divided
into two portions. The former, though possessing a
single and undivided larynx, has only learned, I ima-
gine, to imitate birds by the coarctation of his lips.
The larynx, even among the most ferocious
people, is capable of imitating
the sounds of animals. Consult v.c. Nic. Witsen, Noord en oost – Tartarye,
ed. 2. Amst. 1705. vol. 1. p. 165, respecting the southern inhabitants of
New Guinea, called Papus. And J. Adair, History of the American Indians.
p. 309, respecting the Choktah tribe of North America.
the sounds of animals. Consult v.c. Nic. Witsen, Noord en oost – Tartarye,
ed. 2. Amst. 1705. vol. 1. p. 165, respecting the southern inhabitants of
New Guinea, called Papus. And J. Adair, History of the American Indians.
p. 309, respecting the Choktah tribe of North America.
158. Singing, which is compounded of speech and
an
harmonic modulation of the voice, I conceive to be
peculiar to man and the chief prerogative of his vocal
organs. The power of whistling is innate in birds;
many of them may easily be taught to pronounce
words, and instances have been known of this even in
dogs. But it is recorded, that genuine singing has
once or twice only, and then indeed but indifferently
and with the utmost difficulty, being taught to parrots;
while, on the other hand, scarcely a barbarous nation
exists, in which singing is not common.
harmonic modulation of the voice, I conceive to be
peculiar to man and the chief prerogative of his vocal
organs. The power of whistling is innate in birds;
many of them may easily be taught to pronounce
words, and instances have been known of this even in
dogs. But it is recorded, that genuine singing has
once or twice only, and then indeed but indifferently
and with the utmost difficulty, being taught to parrots;
while, on the other hand, scarcely a barbarous nation
exists, in which singing is not common.
I have in my
hands the testimony of most respectable travellers, in regard,
for instance, to the inhabitants of Ethiopia, Greenland, Canada, California,
Kamtschatka, &c. and therefore wonder at the assertion of Rousseau, – that
singing is not natural to man. Dictionn. de Musique. T. i. p. 170. Genev.
1781. 12mo.
for instance, to the inhabitants of Ethiopia, Greenland, Canada, California,
Kamtschatka, &c. and therefore wonder at the assertion of Rousseau, – that
singing is not natural to man. Dictionn. de Musique. T. i. p. 170. Genev.
1781. 12mo.
[102]
159. Speech is a peculiar modification of the
voice,
adjusted to the formation of the sounds of letters by
the expiration of air through the mouth or nostrils, and
in a great measure by the assistance of the tongue,
applied and struck against the neighbouring parts, the
palate and teeth in particular, and by the diversified
action of the lips.
adjusted to the formation of the sounds of letters by
the expiration of air through the mouth or nostrils, and
in a great measure by the assistance of the tongue,
applied and struck against the neighbouring parts, the
palate and teeth in particular, and by the diversified
action of the lips.
See Rich. Payne Knight,
Analytical Essay on the Greek Alphabet.
Lond.
1791. 4to. p. 3.
1791. 4to. p. 3.
The difference between voice and speech is there-
fore evident. The former is produced in the larynx;
the latter by the singular mechanism of the organs
above described.
fore evident. The former is produced in the larynx;
the latter by the singular mechanism of the organs
above described.
Voice is common to both brutes and man, even
immediately after birth, nor is entirely absent in those
wretched infants who are born deaf. But speech fol-
lows only the culture and employment of reason, and
is consequently, like it, the privilege of man in dis-
tinction to the rest of animal nature. For brutes,
natural instinct is sufficient: but man, destitute of this
and other means of supporting his existence inde-
pendently, enjoys the prerogative of reason and lan-
guage; and following, by their means, his social des-
tination, is enabled to form, as it were, and manifest
his ideas, and to communicate his wants to others, by
the organs of speech.
immediately after birth, nor is entirely absent in those
wretched infants who are born deaf. But speech fol-
lows only the culture and employment of reason, and
is consequently, like it, the privilege of man in dis-
tinction to the rest of animal nature. For brutes,
natural instinct is sufficient: but man, destitute of this
and other means of supporting his existence inde-
pendently, enjoys the prerogative of reason and lan-
guage; and following, by their means, his social des-
tination, is enabled to form, as it were, and manifest
his ideas, and to communicate his wants to others, by
the organs of speech.
160. The mechanism
Consult F. Mercur. ab
Helmont, Alphabeti vere naturalis
Hebraici
Delineatio. Sulzbac. 1657. 12mo.
Delineatio. Sulzbac. 1657. 12mo.
Joach. Jungius, Doxoscopiae Physicae Minores
(1662.) 4to. Append. Sec-
tion. i. p. ii. fol. Gg. ii. 3.
tion. i. p. ii. fol. Gg. ii. 3.
J. Wallis, Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae, cui
praefigitur de loquela s.
sonorum omnium loquelarium formatione tract. grammatico-physicus. Ed. 6.
Lond. 1765. 8vo.
sonorum omnium loquelarium formatione tract. grammatico-physicus. Ed. 6.
Lond. 1765. 8vo.
Gottl. Conr. Chr. Storr, De Formatione Loquelae.
Tubing. 1781. 4to.
[103]
so intricate and so
little understood, that even the
division of letters and their distribution into classes
is attended with much difficulty.
division of letters and their distribution into classes
K.G. Anton, Uber Sprache in Rücksicht auf Geschichte der
Menschheit.
Görlitz. 1799. 8vo.
Görlitz. 1799. 8vo.
Er. Darwin, Temple of Nature. Addit. Notes, p.
112.
is attended with much difficulty.
The division, however, of Ammann,
semi-vowels, and consonants, is very natural:
His Surdus Loquens. Amst. 1692. 8vo. With the Dissert. de Loquela.
Ib. 1700.
Ib. 1700.
semi-vowels, and consonants, is very natural:
I. He divides the vowels
and mixed – ä, ö, ü.
Respecting their
formation, consult Chr. Theoph. Kratzenstein, Tentamen,
recommended above.
recommended above.
and mixed – ä, ö, ü.
These are formed by merely the voice.
The semi-vowels and consonants are articulated by
the mechanism of speech.
the mechanism of speech.
II. The semi-vowels are nasal – m, n,
ng (n before g,
which is nearly related to it), that is, the labio-nasal m,
the dente-nasal n, and the gutture-nasal ng; or oral
(lingual) – r, l, that is, r with a vibration of the tongue,
or l with the tongue less moved.
which is nearly related to it), that is, the labio-nasal m,
the dente-nasal n, and the gutture-nasal ng; or oral
(lingual) – r, l, that is, r with a vibration of the tongue,
or l with the tongue less moved.
III. The consonants are distinguished into hissing
(pronounced in succession)-h, g, ch, s, sch, f, v, ph,
that is h, – formed in the throat, as it were a mere aspi-
ration; g and ch – true consonants; s, sch, – produced
between the teeth; f, v, ph, – formed by the applica-
tion of the lower lip to the upper front teeth: and
explosive (which are, in a manner, at once exploded,
by an expiration, for some time suppressed or inter-
(pronounced in succession)-h, g, ch, s, sch, f, v, ph,
that is h, – formed in the throat, as it were a mere aspi-
ration; g and ch – true consonants; s, sch, – produced
between the teeth; f, v, ph, – formed by the applica-
tion of the lower lip to the upper front teeth: and
explosive (which are, in a manner, at once exploded,
by an expiration, for some time suppressed or inter-
[104]
rupted) that is, k, q, – formed in the throat; d,
t, – about
the teeth; p, b, – near the lips; and double (com-
pound) – x, z.
the teeth; p, b, – near the lips; and double (com-
pound) – x, z.
161. We must just mention certain other modifica-
tions of the human voice, of which some, as hiccup
and cough, belong more properly to pathology than to
physiology, but are very common in the most healthy
persons; and others, as weeping and laughing, appear
peculiar to the human race.
tions of the human voice, of which some, as hiccup
and cough, belong more properly to pathology than to
physiology, but are very common in the most healthy
persons; and others, as weeping and laughing, appear
peculiar to the human race.
162. Many of these are so closely allied, as fre-
quently to be converted into each other; most also are
variously modified.
quently to be converted into each other; most also are
variously modified.
In laughter there is a succession of short and
abrupt
expirations.
expirations.
Fr. Lupichius,
De Risu. Basil. 1738. 4to. Traité des Causes physiques
et morales du rire. Amst. 1788. 8vo.
et morales du rire. Amst. 1788. 8vo.
Coughing is a quick, violent, and sonorous expira-
tion, following a deep inspiration.
tion, following a deep inspiration.
J. Melch. Fr. Albrecht, (Praes. Hallero) Experimenta in vivis animalibus
circa tussis organa exploranda instituta. Gotting. 1751. 4to.
circa tussis organa exploranda instituta. Gotting. 1751. 4to.
Sneezing, generally the consequence of an
irritation
of the mucous membrane of the nostrils, is a violent
and almost convulsive expiration, preceded by a short
and violent inspiration.
of the mucous membrane of the nostrils, is a violent
and almost convulsive expiration, preceded by a short
and violent inspiration.
Marc. Beat. L.J. Porta,
De Sternutatione. Basil. 1755.
4to.
Hiccup, on the contrary, is a sonorous, very
short,
and almost convulsive, inspiration, excited by an un-
usual irritation of the cardia.
and almost convulsive, inspiration, excited by an un-
usual irritation of the cardia.
C.J. Sig. Thiel, De Singultu. Gotting.
1761. 4to.
In weeping there are deep inspirations, quickly alter-
nating with long and occasionally interrupted expi-
rations.
nating with long and occasionally interrupted expi-
rations.
J.F. Schreiber,
De Fletu. L.B. 1728. 4to.
[105]
Sighing is a long and deep inspiration, and
the
subsequent expiration is sometimes accompanied by
groaning.
subsequent expiration is sometimes accompanied by
groaning.
Dav. C. Em. Berdot, De Suspirio. Basil. 1756. 4to.
Nearest in relation to sighing is gaping,
produced by a full, slow, and long, inspiration, followed
by a similar expiration, the jaws at the same time
being drawn asunder, so that the air rushes into the
open fauces and the Eustachian tubes. It occurs from
the blood passing through the lungs too slowly; v.c.
when the pressure of the air is diminished, as upon
very high mountains. A peculiar feature of gaping is
the propensity it excites in others to gape likewise;
arising, no doubt, from the recollection of the pleasure
it produced. (C)
Just. Godofr. Günz, (Praeside Walthero) De Oscitatione. Lips. 1738. 4to.
produced by a full, slow, and long, inspiration, followed
by a similar expiration, the jaws at the same time
being drawn asunder, so that the air rushes into the
open fauces and the Eustachian tubes. It occurs from
the blood passing through the lungs too slowly; v.c.
when the pressure of the air is diminished, as upon
very high mountains. A peculiar feature of gaping is
the propensity it excites in others to gape likewise;
arising, no doubt, from the recollection of the pleasure
it produced. (C)
NOTES.
(A) M. Le Gallois ascertained that the division of the recur-
rent nerves frequently proves even fatal to animals. This effect,
however, varies with the species and age. The danger dimi-
nishes as the animal is older; and, after a certain age, little
inconvenience follows, because the (anterior part of the ?) open-
ing of the glottis is larger proportionally to the capacity of the
lungs not merely in some species than others, but in old than
in young animals.
rent nerves frequently proves even fatal to animals. This effect,
however, varies with the species and age. The danger dimi-
nishes as the animal is older; and, after a certain age, little
inconvenience follows, because the (anterior part of the ?) open-
ing of the glottis is larger proportionally to the capacity of the
lungs not merely in some species than others, but in old than
in young animals.
Expériences sur le Principe de la
Vie.
The inferior ligaments of the glottis are the chief seat of the
[106]
voice, for in blowing into the trachea and larynx of an animal
a
slight sound only is heard, unless you approximate the arytenoid
cartilages to each other, when a sound somewhat analogous to
the voice of the animal will be produced, and more acute in pro-
portion to their approximation, and it will be seen, at the same
time, that the sound is caused chiefly by the vibrations of the
inferior ligaments of the glottis. Again, an opening below the
inferior ligaments destroys the voice, while one above it, even
through the epiglottis, superior ligaments, and arytenoid carti-
lages, has no such effect. In grave tones, the whole length of
the inferior ligaments may be seen in a dog to vibrate; in more
acute, the posterior part only; and in very acute, merely the
arytenoid extremity, the opening of the glottis being of course
lessened in the same proportion. These circumstances depend
upon the thyro-arytenoid muscles, which run on each side from
the arytenoid to the thyroid cartilage and form the lips of the
glottis (and indeed also the superior ligaments,) covered by an
aponeurosis, and this again by the mucous membrane. In pro-
portion as these contract, they become shorter and more tense,
and lessen the mouth of the glottis; but the complete closure
of the glottis at the back part is effected by the arytenoid muscle,
which connects the two arytenoid cartilages. As all these are
voluntary muscles, the division of their nerves destroys the
voice. The division of the recurrents, which supply the thyro-
arytenoid muscles, is sufficient for this purpose but, in some
instances, a sound still remains similar to what may be pro-
duced after death by blowing through the larynx after approxi-
mating the arytenoid cartilages, and must be owing to the action
of the arytenoid muscle, which is supplied not by the recurrent
but by the superior laryngeal nerves. As this muscle is the chief
means of contracting the posterior part of the glottis and pro-
ducing the most acute sounds, the division of the superior laryn-
geal nerves destroys almost all acute sounds and renders the
voice grave. When the division of the recurrent nerves proves
slight sound only is heard, unless you approximate the arytenoid
cartilages to each other, when a sound somewhat analogous to
the voice of the animal will be produced, and more acute in pro-
portion to their approximation, and it will be seen, at the same
time, that the sound is caused chiefly by the vibrations of the
inferior ligaments of the glottis. Again, an opening below the
inferior ligaments destroys the voice, while one above it, even
through the epiglottis, superior ligaments, and arytenoid carti-
lages, has no such effect. In grave tones, the whole length of
the inferior ligaments may be seen in a dog to vibrate; in more
acute, the posterior part only; and in very acute, merely the
arytenoid extremity, the opening of the glottis being of course
lessened in the same proportion. These circumstances depend
upon the thyro-arytenoid muscles, which run on each side from
the arytenoid to the thyroid cartilage and form the lips of the
glottis (and indeed also the superior ligaments,) covered by an
aponeurosis, and this again by the mucous membrane. In pro-
portion as these contract, they become shorter and more tense,
and lessen the mouth of the glottis; but the complete closure
of the glottis at the back part is effected by the arytenoid muscle,
which connects the two arytenoid cartilages. As all these are
voluntary muscles, the division of their nerves destroys the
voice. The division of the recurrents, which supply the thyro-
arytenoid muscles, is sufficient for this purpose but, in some
instances, a sound still remains similar to what may be pro-
duced after death by blowing through the larynx after approxi-
mating the arytenoid cartilages, and must be owing to the action
of the arytenoid muscle, which is supplied not by the recurrent
but by the superior laryngeal nerves. As this muscle is the chief
means of contracting the posterior part of the glottis and pro-
ducing the most acute sounds, the division of the superior laryn-
geal nerves destroys almost all acute sounds and renders the
voice grave. When the division of the recurrent nerves proves
[107]
fatal, it does so by paralysing the muscles that dilate the
glottis,
for the arytenoid muscle that closes the back part of it, being
supplied by the superior laryngeal, acts unopposed.
for the arytenoid muscle that closes the back part of it, being
supplied by the superior laryngeal, acts unopposed.
“It is therefore evident that the larynx represents a reed withThe changes
two plates, the tones of which are acute in proportion as the
plates are short, and grave in proportion as they are long. But
although this analogy is just, we must not imagine that there is
a perfect identity. In fact, common reeds are composed of
rectangular plates fixed on one side and free on the three others,
while the vibrating plates of the larynx, which are also nearly
rectangular, are fixed on three sides and free on one only.
Besides, the tones of common reeds are made to ascend or
descend by varying their length; but the plates of the larynx
vary only in breadth. Lastly, the moveable plates of the reeds
of musical instruments cannot, like the ligaments of the glottis,
change every moment in thickness and elasticity.”
in both the length and breadth of the trachea and of the cavity
between the glottis and the lips, and in the state of the epiglottis
and the ventricles of the larynx, must affect the voice.
F.
Majendie, Précis Elémentaire de Physiologie.
T. i. p. 216 sq.
(B) I am indebted to the tremendously powerful Conyers
Middleton for the knowledge of two cases of distinct articula-
tion with at least but little tongue.
difference between the pious deceptions of weak and wicked
Christians during the first centuries and the sublime miracles of
Christ. and his apostles, he notices a pretty tale of an Arian
prince cutting out the tongues of some of the orthodox party and
these being as able to talk as before; nay one (O hominum im-
pudentia!) who had been dumb from his birth, gained the faculty
of speech by losing his tongue. Granting the fact, and even
that the tongues were completely extirpated, he refers, for the
purpose of proving there was no miracle in the case, to two
Middleton for the knowledge of two cases of distinct articula-
tion with at least but little tongue.
An Enquiry into the miraculous Powers,
&c. Miscellaneous Works, vol. i.
p. 148.
p. 148.
difference between the pious deceptions of weak and wicked
Christians during the first centuries and the sublime miracles of
Christ. and his apostles, he notices a pretty tale of an Arian
prince cutting out the tongues of some of the orthodox party and
these being as able to talk as before; nay one (O hominum im-
pudentia!) who had been dumb from his birth, gained the faculty
of speech by losing his tongue. Granting the fact, and even
that the tongues were completely extirpated, he refers, for the
purpose of proving there was no miracle in the case, to two
[108]
relations of similar instances by medical men in the Mémoires
de l’Academie des Sciences, p. 6. 1718. Professor Thomson
found the speech little impaired after the bullets had carried away
more or less of the tongue.
Tulpius, it seems, mention similar cases. An instance of good
articulation after the loss of the apex and body of the tongue
quite down to the os hyoides occurred in this country.
de l’Academie des Sciences, p. 6. 1718. Professor Thomson
found the speech little impaired after the bullets had carried away
more or less of the tongue.
Report of Observations made in the British
Hospitals in Belgium, after
the Battle of Waterloo; with some Remarks on Amputation.
the Battle of Waterloo; with some Remarks on Amputation.
Tulpius, it seems, mention similar cases. An instance of good
articulation after the loss of the apex and body of the tongue
quite down to the os hyoides occurred in this country.
Phil. Trans.
1746.
[109]
SECT. X.
OF ANIMAL HEAT.
163. Man, the mammalia, and birds, are distin-
guished by the natural temperature
greatly exceeding that of the medium in which they are
accustomed to exist. Man is again distinguished from
these classes of animals by possessing a much lower
temperature than they; so that in this climate it is
about 96° of Fahr. while in them, and especially in
birds, it is considerably higher.
guished by the natural temperature
W.B. Johnson, History of Animal Chemistry.
Vol. iii. p. 79.
greatly exceeding that of the medium in which they are
accustomed to exist. Man is again distinguished from
these classes of animals by possessing a much lower
temperature than they; so that in this climate it is
about 96° of Fahr. while in them, and especially in
birds, it is considerably higher.
The torpid state of some
animals, during winter, is of course an exception
to this. During it most of the functions cease or languish considerably, and the
animal heat is reduced nearly to coolness. This well-known circumstance
prevents me from acceding to the opinion of the very acute J. Hunter, – that the
animals which we call warm blooded, should rather be called animals of a per-
manent heat under all temperatures. On the Blood. p. 15.
to this. During it most of the functions cease or languish considerably, and the
animal heat is reduced nearly to coolness. This well-known circumstance
prevents me from acceding to the opinion of the very acute J. Hunter, – that the
animals which we call warm blooded, should rather be called animals of a per-
manent heat under all temperatures. On the Blood. p. 15.
164. This natural temperature in man, is so con-
stant, equable,
differences from variety of constitution, it varies but
little even in the coldest climate and under the torrid
zone. For the opinion of Boerhaave, – that man can-
not live in a temperature exceeding his own, has been
refuted, since the admirable observations
stant, equable,
J.B. Van Mons, Journal de Physique. T. lxviii. 1809. p.
121.
differences from variety of constitution, it varies but
little even in the coldest climate and under the torrid
zone. For the opinion of Boerhaave, – that man can-
not live in a temperature exceeding his own, has been
refuted, since the admirable observations
Philos. Trans. vol. i. p. ii. 1758.
Arn. Dantze had previously made the
observation in regard to brutes. Exper. calorem, animalem spectantia. Lugd.
Bat. 1754. 4to. Also Benj. Franklin, Experiments and Observations on Elec-
tricity. Lond. 1769. 4to. p. 365.
observation in regard to brutes. Exper. calorem, animalem spectantia. Lugd.
Bat. 1754. 4to. Also Benj. Franklin, Experiments and Observations on Elec-
tricity. Lond. 1769. 4to. p. 365.
[110]
the
celebrated traveller and formerly the captain of the
George, by the remarkable experiments
excellent physiologists.
man is evinced by his being restricted to no climate,
but inhabiting every part of the earth from Hudson’s
bay, where Mercury freezes, and from Nova Zembla,
to the scorching shore of Senegal.
George, by the remarkable experiments
Duhamel and Tillet, Mém. de l’Acad. des Scienc. de Paris. 1704.
Blagden and Dobson, Philos. Trans.
1765.
excellent physiologists.
The heat of the weather, even in Europe, occasionally exceeds our
natural
temperature. This was the case on the third of Aug. 1783, at noon, when I
was on the Lucerne Alps, in company with the excellent Schnyder of Wartensee.
The Thermometer in the shade stood above 100°. Fahr. and when applied to
the body, invariably sunk to near 97°.
temperature. This was the case on the third of Aug. 1783, at noon, when I
was on the Lucerne Alps, in company with the excellent Schnyder of Wartensee.
The Thermometer in the shade stood above 100°. Fahr. and when applied to
the body, invariably sunk to near 97°.
man is evinced by his being restricted to no climate,
but inhabiting every part of the earth from Hudson’s
bay, where Mercury freezes, and from Nova Zembla,
to the scorching shore of Senegal.
165. The explanation of this circumstance is equally
simple and natural, and founded on the doctrine which
makes the lungs the grand receivers or focus, and
the decomposition of the oxygenised portion of the
air (148) the source or fomites, of our heat.
simple and natural, and founded on the doctrine which
makes the lungs the grand receivers or focus, and
the decomposition of the oxygenised portion of the
air (148) the source or fomites, of our heat.
166. For, as the oxygenous part of the inspired air
is decomposed in the air-cells of the lungs, in such a
way that its base, which by its union with latent caloric
was before aëriform, now separates from this caloric,
it would appear that, by this decomposition, one por-
tion of the caloric is rendered sensible in the bronchiae,
while the other enters in a latent form into the blood,
circulating in the innumerable and delicate net-works
of the pulmonary vessels.
is decomposed in the air-cells of the lungs, in such a
way that its base, which by its union with latent caloric
was before aëriform, now separates from this caloric,
it would appear that, by this decomposition, one por-
tion of the caloric is rendered sensible in the bronchiae,
while the other enters in a latent form into the blood,
circulating in the innumerable and delicate net-works
of the pulmonary vessels.
See Lichtenberg’s
animadversions upon this part of Crawfords Theory, in
his notes to Erxleben’s Anfangsgr. der Naturlehre. p. 447. ed. vi.
his notes to Erxleben’s Anfangsgr. der Naturlehre. p. 447. ed. vi.
167. When the oxygenised blood thus charged with
latent heat circulates through the aortic system, it
acquires carbon in the small vessels and sets free much
latent heat circulates through the aortic system, it
acquires carbon in the small vessels and sets free much
[111]
of the
latent heat which it had received: in this way is
our animal heat principally produced.
our animal heat principally produced.
Hence the constant
coldness of those wretched beings who labour under
the blue disease, which arises from a mal-conformation of the heart. Some-
times the septa of the heart are imperfect, sometimes the aorta arises with the
pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, as in the tortoise. In such instances,
the chemical changes can take place in the lungs but imperfectly. Among
innumerable instances of this lamentable disease, suffice it to quote J. Aber-
nethy, Surgical and Physiological Essays. P. ii. p. 158, and Fr. Tiedemann,
Zoologie. T. i. p. 177.
the blue disease, which arises from a mal-conformation of the heart. Some-
times the septa of the heart are imperfect, sometimes the aorta arises with the
pulmonary artery from the right ventricle, as in the tortoise. In such instances,
the chemical changes can take place in the lungs but imperfectly. Among
innumerable instances of this lamentable disease, suffice it to quote J. Aber-
nethy, Surgical and Physiological Essays. P. ii. p. 158, and Fr. Tiedemann,
Zoologie. T. i. p. 177.
168. Its production and regulation, however, appear
much influenced by the secretion of fluids from the
blood, both those which are liquid and destined to
solidify by assimilation and nutrition, and those which
are permanently elastic.
much influenced by the secretion of fluids from the
blood, both those which are liquid and destined to
solidify by assimilation and nutrition, and those which
are permanently elastic.
169. Since those changes are effected by the energy
of the vital powers, the great influence of these upon
our temperature must be easily perceived.
of the vital powers, the great influence of these upon
our temperature must be easily perceived.
I have formerly treated
of the influence of the nervous system upon animal
heat, in my Specimen Physiologiae Comparatae inter animantia calidi & frigidi
sanguinis. p. 23.
heat, in my Specimen Physiologiae Comparatae inter animantia calidi & frigidi
sanguinis. p. 23.
See the same confirmed by many arguments in Magn. Ström’s Theoria in-
flammationis doctrinae de calore Animali superstructa. Havn. 1795. 8vo.
p. 30 sq. and by the much lamented Roose, Journal der Erfindungen, &c.
T. v. p. 17.
flammationis doctrinae de calore Animali superstructa. Havn. 1795. 8vo.
p. 30 sq. and by the much lamented Roose, Journal der Erfindungen, &c.
T. v. p. 17.
Consult also Dupuytren, Analyse des Travaux de
l’Institut. 1807. p. 16.
170. Many arguments render it probable, that the
action of the minute vessels, and the conversion of
oxygenised into carbonised blood, are dependent
upon the varied excitement or depression of the vital
principle.
action of the minute vessels, and the conversion of
oxygenised into carbonised blood, are dependent
upon the varied excitement or depression of the vital
principle.
For the remarkable phenomena of the stability of
our temperature,
by the sense of touch, which may be fallacious) – that
our temperature,
See Crawford, Philos.
Trans. vol. lxxi. p. ii.
by the sense of touch, which may be fallacious) – that
[112]
it is scarcely increased
by the heat of summer, or dimi-
nished by the cold of winter, but found sometimes even
to increase on immersion in cold water,
that the action of the minute vessels varies according
to the temperature of the medium in which we are
placed: so that, when exposed to a low temperature
(by which their tone is probably augmented) more oxy-
gen is exchanged for carbon and more heat evolved,
while in a high and debilitating temperature this ex-
change is diminished and less heat evolved.
nished by the cold of winter, but found sometimes even
to increase on immersion in cold water,
G. Pickel, Experimenta
Physico-Medica de Electricitate et Calore ani-
mali.Wirceb. 1788. 8vo. p. 91 sq.
mali.Wirceb. 1788. 8vo. p. 91 sq.
that the action of the minute vessels varies according
to the temperature of the medium in which we are
placed: so that, when exposed to a low temperature
(by which their tone is probably augmented) more oxy-
gen is exchanged for carbon and more heat evolved,
while in a high and debilitating temperature this ex-
change is diminished and less heat evolved.
C. Ferd. Becker, De
Effectibus caloris et frigoris externi in c.h. Gott.
1802. 4to.; and Wm. Fr. Baur, On the same subject.ib. eod. (both
honoured with the royal prize.) Mich. Skjelderup, Dissert. sistens vim
frigoris incitantem. Hafn. 1803. 8vo.
1802. 4to.; and Wm. Fr. Baur, On the same subject.ib. eod. (both
honoured with the royal prize.) Mich. Skjelderup, Dissert. sistens vim
frigoris incitantem. Hafn. 1803. 8vo.
171. The corium, which covers the body, and
the
internal surface of the alimentary canal, eminently con-
tribute, if we are not much mistaken, to regulate our
temperature. For both these organs are supplied with
an immense number of blood-vessels, being analogous in
this respect to the lungs, and are so intimately con-
nected with the lungs by means of sympathy,
some degree to perform a part, and occasionally the
whole, of some of their functions in their room. This
is exemplified in adults labouring under nearly total
consumption, or other violent affections, of the lungs,
and nevertheless, existing for a length of time almost
without respiration.
internal surface of the alimentary canal, eminently con-
tribute, if we are not much mistaken, to regulate our
temperature. For both these organs are supplied with
an immense number of blood-vessels, being analogous in
this respect to the lungs, and are so intimately con-
nected with the lungs by means of sympathy,
J. Chr. Fr. Goeschen,
(Praes. Ph. Fr. Meckel) Pulmonum cum Cute com-
mercium. Hal. 1789. 8vo. But especially J.D. Brandis, Pathologie.
Hamb. 1808. p. 316 sq.
mercium. Hal. 1789. 8vo. But especially J.D. Brandis, Pathologie.
Hamb. 1808. p. 316 sq.
some degree to perform a part, and occasionally the
whole, of some of their functions in their room. This
is exemplified in adults labouring under nearly total
consumption, or other violent affections, of the lungs,
and nevertheless, existing for a length of time almost
without respiration.
Consult, for
instance, Tacconi, Comment. Instit. Bononiens.
Vol. vi. p. 74.
[113]
172. This opinion respecting the action of the cuta-
neous vessels in exciting, moderating, or almost extin-
guishing, our heat, receives much support from the
physiological and pathological facts of some parts being
frequently of a higher or lower temperature than the
rest of the system.
neous vessels in exciting, moderating, or almost extin-
guishing, our heat, receives much support from the
physiological and pathological facts of some parts being
frequently of a higher or lower temperature than the
rest of the system.
Thus we must attribute the coldness of the dog’s
nose to the specific action of its own vessels being
modified differently from that of the rest; so on the
other hand, the burning sometimes of the cheeks and
sometimes of the palms of the hands in hectic fever, to
the locally increased action of the vessels; besides
other phenomena of the same description, v.c. the
heat of the genitals during the venereal oestrum, and
the obstinate coldness of the feet in certain diseases.
nose to the specific action of its own vessels being
modified differently from that of the rest; so on the
other hand, the burning sometimes of the cheeks and
sometimes of the palms of the hands in hectic fever, to
the locally increased action of the vessels; besides
other phenomena of the same description, v.c. the
heat of the genitals during the venereal oestrum, and
the obstinate coldness of the feet in certain diseases.
173. The alimentary canal is the only internal
part,
besides the lungs, exposed to the contact of the atmos-
phere. There is scarcely occasion to prove that it is
so exposed, and that we swallow a considerable quan-
tity of air.
besides the lungs, exposed to the contact of the atmos-
phere. There is scarcely occasion to prove that it is
so exposed, and that we swallow a considerable quan-
tity of air.
The air, when swallowed, is decomposed in the sto-
mach and intestines, so that, during health, it soon
loses its elastic form: not, however, when the capil-
laries of the canal are debilitated, nor when it exists
in too great quantity.
mach and intestines, so that, during health, it soon
loses its elastic form: not, however, when the capil-
laries of the canal are debilitated, nor when it exists
in too great quantity.
The immense congeries of blood-vessels in the intes-
tines on their internal surface which is usually thought
equal to the external surface of the body, agrees very
well with this idea.
tines on their internal surface which is usually thought
equal to the external surface of the body, agrees very
well with this idea.
[114]
NOTE.
No phenomenon in living bodies is more remarkable than their
peculiar temperature, and no one was of more difficult explana-
tion before the progress of modern chemistry.
peculiar temperature, and no one was of more difficult explana-
tion before the progress of modern chemistry.
If two different bodies are placed in a temperature higher or
lower than their own for a certain length of time, they will, at
the end of the period, be found not of the same, but of different,
temperatures. That which has the higher temperature, is said
to have a smaller capacity for caloric; that which has the lower,
a greater capacity. To raise the former to a given temperature,
therefore, requires less heat than to raise the latter to the same
degree.
lower than their own for a certain length of time, they will, at
the end of the period, be found not of the same, but of different,
temperatures. That which has the higher temperature, is said
to have a smaller capacity for caloric; that which has the lower,
a greater capacity. To raise the former to a given temperature,
therefore, requires less heat than to raise the latter to the same
degree.
The temperature of solids is more easily affected by a given
quantity of heat, than that of fluids, and the temperature of fluids
than that of aëriform bodies: or, in other words, solids have a
smaller capacity for caloric, than fluids, and fluids than aëriform
bodies. If, therefore, a solid becomes fluid, or a fluid aëri-
form, it absorbs a great quantity of heat, though its temperature
remain precisely the same. And the converse holds equally
good, – if an aëriform substance becomes liquid, or a liquid solid,
the heat which it before contained is now (from its diminished
capacity) much more than sufficient for the temperature which
before existed, and the temperature of the body accordingly rises.
quantity of heat, than that of fluids, and the temperature of fluids
than that of aëriform bodies: or, in other words, solids have a
smaller capacity for caloric, than fluids, and fluids than aëriform
bodies. If, therefore, a solid becomes fluid, or a fluid aëri-
form, it absorbs a great quantity of heat, though its temperature
remain precisely the same. And the converse holds equally
good, – if an aëriform substance becomes liquid, or a liquid solid,
the heat which it before contained is now (from its diminished
capacity) much more than sufficient for the temperature which
before existed, and the temperature of the body accordingly rises.
In respiration, the dark blood of the pulmonary artery parts
with a portion of its carbon and acquires a florid hue. This car-
bon unites with the oxygen of the inspired air, and forms carbonic
acid that is expired with the other constituent of the atmos-
phere, – nitrogen or azote, which appears to have experienced
no change from inspiration.
with a portion of its carbon and acquires a florid hue. This car-
bon unites with the oxygen of the inspired air, and forms carbonic
acid that is expired with the other constituent of the atmos-
phere, – nitrogen or azote, which appears to have experienced
no change from inspiration.
Dr. Crawford rendered it probable, by his experiments, that
the arterial blood has a larger capacity for caloric than the
venous, and common air than carbonic acid gas. When, there-
fore, the carbon of the venous blood unites with the oxygen of
the arterial blood has a larger capacity for caloric than the
venous, and common air than carbonic acid gas. When, there-
fore, the carbon of the venous blood unites with the oxygen of
[115]
the air and forms carbonic
acid, the smaller capacity of this than
of common air for caloric, must cause an increase of tempera-
ture, but the blood, having changed from venous to arterial, has
acquired a greater capacity than before and absorbs the heat given
out by the carbonic acid. The blood, of course, does not become
warmer, because the heat is not more than sufficient to render
its temperature equal to what it was previously; and indeed
it is not quite sufficient for this, since the arterial blood of the
pulmonary veins is generally two degrees lower than that of the
pulmonary artery.
of common air for caloric, must cause an increase of tempera-
ture, but the blood, having changed from venous to arterial, has
acquired a greater capacity than before and absorbs the heat given
out by the carbonic acid. The blood, of course, does not become
warmer, because the heat is not more than sufficient to render
its temperature equal to what it was previously; and indeed
it is not quite sufficient for this, since the arterial blood of the
pulmonary veins is generally two degrees lower than that of the
pulmonary artery.
The body in this way acquires a fund of heat, and yet the
lungs, in which it is acquired, do not experience any elevation
of temperature.
lungs, in which it is acquired, do not experience any elevation
of temperature.
The arterial blood, charged with much heat which is not sen-
sible, as it circulates through the small vessels, becomes venous, –
acquires a dark hue, and its capacity for heat is diminished;
consequently its temperature rises, – the heat which was pre-
viously latent, is, from the decrease of capacity, sufficient to
raise its temperature, and is evolved. In this mode, the loss of
heat which occurs from the inferior temperature in which we
live, is compensated. The fresh supply is taken in at the lungs,
and brought into use in the minute vessels.
sible, as it circulates through the small vessels, becomes venous, –
acquires a dark hue, and its capacity for heat is diminished;
consequently its temperature rises, – the heat which was pre-
viously latent, is, from the decrease of capacity, sufficient to
raise its temperature, and is evolved. In this mode, the loss of
heat which occurs from the inferior temperature in which we
live, is compensated. The fresh supply is taken in at the lungs,
and brought into use in the minute vessels.
Of late, this theory has fallen into discredit.
All experiments upon the capacities of bodies for heat are very
delicate and liable to error; and the conclusions of Crawford on
this point have been denied by M.M. Delaroche and Berard,
with respect to the gases, and by Dr. Davy, with respect to arte-
rial and venous blood.
delicate and liable to error; and the conclusions of Crawford on
this point have been denied by M.M. Delaroche and Berard,
with respect to the gases, and by Dr. Davy, with respect to arte-
rial and venous blood.
Philos. Trans. 1814.
Mr. Brodie cut off the communication between the brain and
lungs of animals, and continued respiration artificially.
usual chemical changes continued in the lungs upon the blood,
nevertheless the temperature of the animals diminished, and even
more rapidly than if the respiration had not been continued, owing,
lungs of animals, and continued respiration artificially.
Philos. Trans.
1812.
usual chemical changes continued in the lungs upon the blood,
nevertheless the temperature of the animals diminished, and even
more rapidly than if the respiration had not been continued, owing,
[116]
he says, to the succession of cool air sent into the lungs.
He
therefore concludes, that animal heat depends much more upon
the nervous energy than upon the chemical changes of the
blood. But Le Gallois asserts, that under artificial respiration
the temperature falls, even if every part remain uninjured.
Dr. Crawford himself states that the chemical process of respi-
ration may, in certain cases, be the means of cooling the body.
therefore concludes, that animal heat depends much more upon
the nervous energy than upon the chemical changes of the
blood. But Le Gallois asserts, that under artificial respiration
the temperature falls, even if every part remain uninjured.
Sur le Principe de la
vie.
Dr. Crawford himself states that the chemical process of respi-
ration may, in certain cases, be the means of cooling the body.
If the pulmonary exhalation is in very great abundance, it will
carry off so much of the heat given out during the change of the
oxygen into carbonic acid, that there may not be sufficient to
saturate the increased capacity of the arterial blood; this will
therefore absorb heat from the system, as it passes along, till its
temperature equals that of the other parts.
carry off so much of the heat given out during the change of the
oxygen into carbonic acid, that there may not be sufficient to
saturate the increased capacity of the arterial blood; this will
therefore absorb heat from the system, as it passes along, till its
temperature equals that of the other parts.
l.c. p.
388.
Many circumstances, however, favour the doctrine of Crawford.
In high temperatures we have less necessity for the evolution of
heat by the chemical changes of the blood and air, whereas, in
low temperatures, as more heat is required to sustain the natural
degree of temperature, the chemical changes are more necessary.
Accordingly, in very high temperatures, the arterial blood
remains arterial, – is as florid in the veins as in the arteries, and
the inspired air is less vitiated; in low temperatures, the venous
blood is extremely dark, and the inspired air more vitiated.
In high temperatures we have less necessity for the evolution of
heat by the chemical changes of the blood and air, whereas, in
low temperatures, as more heat is required to sustain the natural
degree of temperature, the chemical changes are more necessary.
Accordingly, in very high temperatures, the arterial blood
remains arterial, – is as florid in the veins as in the arteries, and
the inspired air is less vitiated; in low temperatures, the venous
blood is extremely dark, and the inspired air more vitiated.
Crawford on Animal Heat. p. 387 sq.
The temperature is also regulated by the degree of perspi-
ration, the momentum of the blood, &c. In proportion as more
vapour transpires from the skin, will more heat be carried off,
whence M. Delaroche heated animals at pleasure like inanimate
matter by saturating their atmosphere with humidity, thus pre-
venting cutaneous and pulmonary evaporation. And as the sum
of the quantity and velocity of blood in any part is greater, the
temperature of that part will be higher. Whether Crawford’s
theory be correct or not, the production of animal temperature
must still be as evidently a chemical process as changes of tem-
perature among inanimate bodies. But this does not prevent it
ration, the momentum of the blood, &c. In proportion as more
vapour transpires from the skin, will more heat be carried off,
whence M. Delaroche heated animals at pleasure like inanimate
matter by saturating their atmosphere with humidity, thus pre-
venting cutaneous and pulmonary evaporation. And as the sum
of the quantity and velocity of blood in any part is greater, the
temperature of that part will be higher. Whether Crawford’s
theory be correct or not, the production of animal temperature
must still be as evidently a chemical process as changes of tem-
perature among inanimate bodies. But this does not prevent it
[117]
from strictly deserving the epithet vital, because it is regulated
by the vital powers of the system, although through the instru-
mentality of chemical changes. If the high temperature of an
inflamed part is owing to the increased momentum of the blood,
yet this increased momentum is produced by the vital powers.
As there is less vigour in old than in young persons, and in
remote parts than in those which are near the centre of circu-
lation, the momentum of the blood is less in the old than the
young, and in parts remote than in parts near the heart; hence
the temperature of the old falls short of the temperature of the
young, and is stated to be in all persons lower in proportion to
the distance of parts from the centre of circulation.
by the vital powers of the system, although through the instru-
mentality of chemical changes. If the high temperature of an
inflamed part is owing to the increased momentum of the blood,
yet this increased momentum is produced by the vital powers.
As there is less vigour in old than in young persons, and in
remote parts than in those which are near the centre of circu-
lation, the momentum of the blood is less in the old than the
young, and in parts remote than in parts near the heart; hence
the temperature of the old falls short of the temperature of the
young, and is stated to be in all persons lower in proportion to
the distance of parts from the centre of circulation.
Dr. Davy, Philos.
Trans. 1814.
All animate matter has a tendency to preserve a certain tem-
perature. Even eggs are cooled and frozen with more difficulty
than equal masses of inanimate matter, though, when once frozen
and their life destroyed, they freeze readily.
the same tendency by the greater difficulty with which the juices
in their stems and branches are frozen than lifeless fluids, and by
ice thawing when roots shoot into it.
perature. Even eggs are cooled and frozen with more difficulty
than equal masses of inanimate matter, though, when once frozen
and their life destroyed, they freeze readily.
Hunter,
on the Blood, &c. p. 79.
the same tendency by the greater difficulty with which the juices
in their stems and branches are frozen than lifeless fluids, and by
ice thawing when roots shoot into it.
American Medical and
Philosophical Register. 1814. p. 19.
[118]
SECT. XI.
OF PERSPIRATION.
174. The functions of the skin, which affords a
cover-
ing to the body, are so extremely various that they
cannot all be easily described with advantage in one
chapter, but each will be considered far more conve-
niently under that class of actions to which it belongs.
ing to the body, are so extremely various that they
cannot all be easily described with advantage in one
chapter, but each will be considered far more conve-
niently under that class of actions to which it belongs.
For, in the first place, the skin is the organ of touch,
and will be examined in this view, under the head of
animal functions.
and will be examined in this view, under the head of
animal functions.
It is an organ of inhalation, and in this point of view
belongs to the absorbent system, to be spoken of among
the natural functions.
belongs to the absorbent system, to be spoken of among
the natural functions.
It is likewise the organ of perspiration, and on this
account related in many ways to the function of respi-
ration, and may, we think, very properly follow it in
this place,
account related in many ways to the function of respi-
ration, and may, we think, very properly follow it in
this place,
175. The skin consists of three membranes – The co-
rium, internal; the cuticle, external; and the reticulum,
intermediate.
rium, internal; the cuticle, external; and the reticulum,
intermediate.
176. The cuticle or epidermis
covering of the body, is separable into lamellae,
exposed to the atmosphere, the contact of which can
be borne by scarcely any other part, if you except the
Al. Monro (Primus), Oratio de Cuticula
Humana. Opera. English edition.
Edinb. 1781. 4to. p. 54. sq.
Edinb. 1781. 4to. p. 54. sq.
covering of the body, is separable into lamellae,
Among others, consult J.
Mitchell, Philos. Trans. Vol. xliii. p.
111.
exposed to the atmosphere, the contact of which can
be borne by scarcely any other part, if you except the
[119]
enamel of the teeth. For this
reason, the internal cavi-
ties and the canals which communicate with the surface
for the purpose of admitting air, especially the respi-
ratory passages and the whole of the alimentary canal,
the tongue, the inside of the cheeks, the fauces, and the
organ of smell, are covered by a fine epithelium, origi-
nating from the epidermis.
ties and the canals which communicate with the surface
for the purpose of admitting air, especially the respi-
ratory passages and the whole of the alimentary canal,
the tongue, the inside of the cheeks, the fauces, and the
organ of smell, are covered by a fine epithelium, origi-
nating from the epidermis.
Abr. Kaau, Perspiratio dicta Hippocrati. p. 7.
Lieberkühn, De fabrica Villor. Intestin. Tenuium.
p. 16.
Cruikshank, Expts. on the Insensible
Perspiration. p. 5.
Rudolphi, Reisebemerkungen. T. i. p. 29. 140.
Jens. W. Neergaard, Vergleichende Anat. der
Verdauungswerkzeuge, p. 21,
& alibi.
& alibi.
177. The texture of the epidermis is extremely simple,
destitute of vessels, nerves, and of true mucous web,
and consequently but little organised; very peculiar,
however,
dity and delicacy, so that it resists for a great length of
time maceration, suppuration, and other modes of
destitute of vessels, nerves, and of true mucous web,
and consequently but little organised; very peculiar,
however,
The very dense epidermis
of some immense animals consists of vertical
fibres which, in arrangement, somewhat resemble the structure of the Boletus
igniarius. Its internal surface is porous and penetrated by the silky filaments
of the subjacent corium. This is remarkably exemplified in a preparation now
before me, taken from the skin of the balaena mysticete. The human cuticle, in
certain diseased states, exhibits the same appearance as in the Englishman
called the Porcupine Man, who laboured under a cuticular complaint which he
transmitted to his children and grand-children. Vide W.G. Tilesius, Be-
schreibung und Abbildung der beiden sogenannten Stachelschwein-Menschen
(Porcupine Men). Altenb. 1802. fol.
fibres which, in arrangement, somewhat resemble the structure of the Boletus
igniarius. Its internal surface is porous and penetrated by the silky filaments
of the subjacent corium. This is remarkably exemplified in a preparation now
before me, taken from the skin of the balaena mysticete. The human cuticle, in
certain diseased states, exhibits the same appearance as in the Englishman
called the Porcupine Man, who laboured under a cuticular complaint which he
transmitted to his children and grand-children. Vide W.G. Tilesius, Be-
schreibung und Abbildung der beiden sogenannten Stachelschwein-Menschen
(Porcupine Men). Altenb. 1802. fol.
The innumerable polyedrical papillae and horny warts which I witnessed
upon
every part of the skin of these brothers, excepting the head, the palms of the
hands, and the soles of the feet, bore some resemblance to the skin of the
elephant, especially about the vertex and forehead of the animal. (A)
every part of the skin of these brothers, excepting the head, the palms of the
hands, and the soles of the feet, bore some resemblance to the skin of the
elephant, especially about the vertex and forehead of the animal. (A)
Similar also are corns and the brawny cuticle of the feet in those who
walk
barefooted. Vide Carlisle on the Production and Nature of Corns, Med. Facts
and Observations. Vol. vii. p. 29.
barefooted. Vide Carlisle on the Production and Nature of Corns, Med. Facts
and Observations. Vol. vii. p. 29.
dity and delicacy, so that it resists for a great length of
time maceration, suppuration, and other modes of
[120]
destruction, and reproduced more
easily than any other
of the similar parts.
of the similar parts.
178. It is completely sui generis, somewhat like a
horny lamella, and adheres to the subjacent corium by
the intervention of a mucus, and by numerous very
delicate fibrils which penetrate the latter.
horny lamella, and adheres to the subjacent corium by
the intervention of a mucus, and by numerous very
delicate fibrils which penetrate the latter.
W. Hunter, Med. Observations and Inquiries. vol. ii. p. 52
sq. tab. i.
fig. 1, 2. The conjecture of this eminent man, – that the fibrils excrete the per-
spirable matter, is, I think, improbable.
fig. 1, 2. The conjecture of this eminent man, – that the fibrils excrete the per-
spirable matter, is, I think, improbable.
The pores which Leuwenhoek imagined in it, do not
exist; but it allows a very ready passage to caloric, car-
bon, hydrogen, and to matters immediately composed
of these, v.c. oil.
exist; but it allows a very ready passage to caloric, car-
bon, hydrogen, and to matters immediately composed
of these, v.c. oil.
179. The importance of the cuticle to organised sys-
tems, is demonstrated by its universality in the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, and by its being distinctly ob-
servable in the embryo from the third month at latest
after conception.
tems, is demonstrated by its universality in the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, and by its being distinctly ob-
servable in the embryo from the third month at latest
after conception.
180. The inner part of the cuticle is lined by a fine
mucous membrane, denominated from the opinion of its
discoverer, reticulum Malpighianum, and by means of
which chiefly the cuticle is united more firmly to the
corium.
mucous membrane, denominated from the opinion of its
discoverer, reticulum Malpighianum, and by means of
which chiefly the cuticle is united more firmly to the
corium.
Hence I have
found the Epidermis of Albinos separate easily by the heat
of the sun; whereas in negroes, it scarcely does so on the application of a
blister. C.F. Mitchell, l.c. p. 108.
of the sun; whereas in negroes, it scarcely does so on the application of a
blister. C.F. Mitchell, l.c. p. 108.
Its nature is mucous, it is very soluble, and, being
thicker in Ethiopians, may be completely separated in
them from both the corium and cuticle, and made to
appear as a true distinct membrane.
thicker in Ethiopians, may be completely separated in
them from both the corium and cuticle, and made to
appear as a true distinct membrane.
B.S. Albinus, De sede & causa coloris
aethiopium et caeteror. hominum.
Lugd. Batav. 1737. 4to. fig. 1.
Lugd. Batav. 1737. 4to. fig. 1.
Sam. Th. Soemmerring, Uber die körperl. Verschiedenh.
des Negers vom
Europäer. Ed. 2. p. 46. sq.
Europäer. Ed. 2. p. 46. sq.
Some even of the
moderns have assigned many laminae, and even different
kinds of laminae, to the reticulum; as Lieutaud, Essais Anatomiques. p. 103.
ed. 1766. and Cruikshank, l.c. p. 43. 99.
kinds of laminae, to the reticulum; as Lieutaud, Essais Anatomiques. p. 103.
ed. 1766. and Cruikshank, l.c. p. 43. 99.
Others make it organic. Consult, v.c. Mich. Skjelderup, l.c. p.
93.
[121]
181. Our colour resides in it. In all persons the
corium is white, and, in almost all, the cuticle white and
semipellucid, though in Ethiopians it inclines to grey.
But the mucous reticulum varies after birth, with age,
mode of life, and especially with difference of climate.
corium is white, and, in almost all, the cuticle white and
semipellucid, though in Ethiopians it inclines to grey.
But the mucous reticulum varies after birth, with age,
mode of life, and especially with difference of climate.
Thus among the four varieties into which I would
divide the human race, in the first, which may be
termed Caucasian and embraces Europeans (except the
Laplanders and the rest of the Finnish race), the western
Asiatics, and the northern Africans, it is more or less
white.
divide the human race, in the first, which may be
termed Caucasian and embraces Europeans (except the
Laplanders and the rest of the Finnish race), the western
Asiatics, and the northern Africans, it is more or less
white.
In the second or Mongolian, including the rest of the
Asiatics (except the Malays of the peninsula beyond the
Ganges), the Finnish races of the north of Europe, as
the Laplanders, &c. and the tribes of Eskimaux diffused
over the north of America, it is yellow or resembling
box wood.
Asiatics (except the Malays of the peninsula beyond the
Ganges), the Finnish races of the north of Europe, as
the Laplanders, &c. and the tribes of Eskimaux diffused
over the north of America, it is yellow or resembling
box wood.
In the third – the Ethiopian, to which the remainder
of the Africans
of the Africans
Jo. Nic. Pechlin, De Habitu
et Colore Aethiopum, qui vulgo et Nigritae.
Kilon. 1677. 8vo. Camper’s oration on the same subject will be found in his
Kleiner Schriften. Vol. i. p. 1. p. 24–49.
Kilon. 1677. 8vo. Camper’s oration on the same subject will be found in his
Kleiner Schriften. Vol. i. p. 1. p. 24–49.
In the fourth or American, comprehending all the
Americans excepting the Eskimaux, it is almost copper
coloured, – of a dark orange or ferruginous hue.
Americans excepting the Eskimaux, it is almost copper
coloured, – of a dark orange or ferruginous hue.
In the fifth or Malaic, in which I include the inhabi-
tants of all the islands in the Pacific Ocean, and of the
Philippine and Sunda, and those of the peninsula of
Malaya, it is more or less tawny, – between the hue of
fresh mahogany and that of cloves or chesnuts.
tants of all the islands in the Pacific Ocean, and of the
Philippine and Sunda, and those of the peninsula of
Malaya, it is more or less tawny, – between the hue of
fresh mahogany and that of cloves or chesnuts.
[122]
All these shades of colour, as well as the other cha-
racteristics of nations and individuals, run so insensibly
into one another that all division and classification of
them must be more or less arbitrary.
racteristics of nations and individuals, run so insensibly
into one another that all division and classification of
them must be more or less arbitrary.
182. The essential cause of the colour of the Mal-
pighian mucus, is, if we mistake not, the proportion of
carbon which is excreted together with hydrogen from the
corium, and in dark nations, being very copious, is pre-
cipitated upon the mucus and combined with it.
pighian mucus, is, if we mistake not, the proportion of
carbon which is excreted together with hydrogen from the
corium, and in dark nations, being very copious, is pre-
cipitated upon the mucus and combined with it.
I have given this opinion
at some length in my work, De Gen.
Human.
Varietate Nativa. p. 122 sq. ed. 3. Some eminent chemists accord with me,
among whom suffice it to mention the celebrated Davy, Journals of the Royal
Institution. vol. ii. p. 30.
W.B. Johnson, l.c. vol. ii. p. 229.
Varietate Nativa. p. 122 sq. ed. 3. Some eminent chemists accord with me,
among whom suffice it to mention the celebrated Davy, Journals of the Royal
Institution. vol. ii. p. 30.
“In the rete mucosum of the African, the carbon
becomes the predominant principle; hence the blackness of the negro.”
W.B. Johnson, l.c. vol. ii. p. 229.
183. The corium, which is covered by the reticulum
and epidermis, is a membrane, investing the whole body
and defining its surface; tough; very extensible; of dif-
ferent degrees of thickness; every where closely united,
and, as it were, interwoven, with the mucous tela, espe-
cially externally, but more loosely on its internal sur-
face, in which, excepting in certain parts, we generally
discover fat.
and epidermis, is a membrane, investing the whole body
and defining its surface; tough; very extensible; of dif-
ferent degrees of thickness; every where closely united,
and, as it were, interwoven, with the mucous tela, espe-
cially externally, but more loosely on its internal sur-
face, in which, excepting in certain parts, we generally
discover fat.
184. Besides nerves and absorbents, innumerable
blood vessels, of which we shall speak hereafter, pene-
trate to its external surface, upon which they are shewn,
by minute injection, to form very close and delicate
net-works.
blood vessels, of which we shall speak hereafter, pene-
trate to its external surface, upon which they are shewn,
by minute injection, to form very close and delicate
net-works.
185. A vast number of sebaceous follicles also are
dispersed throughout it, which diffuse over the skin an
oil,
dispersed throughout it, which diffuse over the skin an
oil,
Chr. Gottl.
Ludwig, De Humore cutem inungente. Lips. 1748.
4to.
Lyonet, Lettre à M. Le Cat. p.
12.
[123]
distinct, from the common sweat, and from that
which
possesses an odor resembling the odor of goats and
is peculiar to certain parts only.
possesses an odor resembling the odor of goats and
is peculiar to certain parts only.
186. Lastly, almost every part of the corium is beset
with various kinds of hairs,
more or less downy, and found nearly every where but
on the palpebrae, penis, the palms of the hand, and the
soles of the feet. In some parts, they are long and des-
tined for peculiar purposes; such are the capilla-
mentum, the eyebrows, the eye-lashes, the vibrissae,
mustachios, beard, and the hair of the arm-pits and
pudenda.
with various kinds of hairs,
Jo. Ph. Withoff, De pilo humano. Duisb. 1750. 4to. Compare the
Com-
mentar. Societ. Scient. Gotting. Vol. ii.
mentar. Societ. Scient. Gotting. Vol. ii.
Job. Baster, Verhandel. der Maatsch. te Haarlem.
T. xiv. p. 382.
more or less downy, and found nearly every where but
on the palpebrae, penis, the palms of the hand, and the
soles of the feet. In some parts, they are long and des-
tined for peculiar purposes; such are the capilla-
mentum, the eyebrows, the eye-lashes, the vibrissae,
mustachios, beard, and the hair of the arm-pits and
pudenda.
187. Man is, generally speaking, less hairy than most
other mammalia. But in this respect nations differ.
For, not to mention those nations who to this day care-
fully pluck out their beard or the hair of other parts,
others appear naturally destitute of hair, v.c. the
Tunguses and Burats; (C) on the contrary, creditable
travellers assert that some inhabitants of the islands in
the Pacific and Indian Ocean are remarkable hairy.
other mammalia. But in this respect nations differ.
For, not to mention those nations who to this day care-
fully pluck out their beard or the hair of other parts,
others appear naturally destitute of hair, v.c. the
Tunguses and Burats; (C) on the contrary, creditable
travellers assert that some inhabitants of the islands in
the Pacific and Indian Ocean are remarkable hairy.
De
Generis Human. Variet. Nativ. p. 29.
188. Nor is there less variety in the length, flexibi-
lity, colour, and disposition to curl, both in each race
of men enumerated above (181) and in individuals. V.c.
The hair of the head in the Caucasian variety is rather
dingy or of a nut brown, inclined on one hand to yellow
and on the other to black; in the Mongolian and Ame-
rican, it is black, stiffer, straight, and more sparing; in
the Malay, black, soft, curling, thick, and abundant; in
the Ethiopians, black and woolly: In individuals, espe-
lity, colour, and disposition to curl, both in each race
of men enumerated above (181) and in individuals. V.c.
The hair of the head in the Caucasian variety is rather
dingy or of a nut brown, inclined on one hand to yellow
and on the other to black; in the Mongolian and Ame-
rican, it is black, stiffer, straight, and more sparing; in
the Malay, black, soft, curling, thick, and abundant; in
the Ethiopians, black and woolly: In individuals, espe-
[124]
cially of the Caucasian
variety, there are great differ-
ences, and chiefly in connection with temperament, which
is found intimately and invariably connected with the
colour, abundance, disposition to curl, &c. of the hair;
and there also exists a remarkable correspondence be-
tween the colour of the hair and of the iris.
ences, and chiefly in connection with temperament, which
is found intimately and invariably connected with the
colour, abundance, disposition to curl, &c. of the hair;
Galen, Ars Medicinalis, p. 211–235. M. Ant. Ulm, Uterus Muliebris.
p. 128, et alibi. Lavater, Fragmente. T. iv. p. 112, among many others.
p. 128, et alibi. Lavater, Fragmente. T. iv. p. 112, among many others.
and there also exists a remarkable correspondence be-
tween the colour of the hair and of the iris.
189. The direction of the hairs is peculiar in certain
parts, v.c. – spiral on the summit of the head – di-
verging upwards on the pubes – on the exterior of the
arm, as is commonly seen in some anthropomorphous
apes, (v.c. in the satyrus and troglodytes) running in
two opposite directions towards the elbow, i.e. down-
wards from the shoulder, upwards from the wrist; to
say nothing of the eye-lashes and eye-brows.
parts, v.c. – spiral on the summit of the head – di-
verging upwards on the pubes – on the exterior of the
arm, as is commonly seen in some anthropomorphous
apes, (v.c. in the satyrus and troglodytes) running in
two opposite directions towards the elbow, i.e. down-
wards from the shoulder, upwards from the wrist; to
say nothing of the eye-lashes and eye-brows.
190. The hairs originate from the inner surface of
the corium, which abounds in fat. They adhere to it
pretty firmly,
involucrum;
rior cylindrical, apparently continuous with the epider-
mis,
hair is composed, and which are generally from five to
ten in each.
the corium, which abounds in fat. They adhere to it
pretty firmly,
I suspect
that the bulb is intended for support rather than for
nourishment,
from this circumstance, – that the locks of hairs sometimes found in melicera
and steatomata of the omentum and ovarium, some of which I have now before
me, are usually destitute of bulbs, because they are not fixed, but lie naked in
the honey-like fatty matter.
from this circumstance, – that the locks of hairs sometimes found in melicera
and steatomata of the omentum and ovarium, some of which I have now before
me, are usually destitute of bulbs, because they are not fixed, but lie naked in
the honey-like fatty matter.
involucrum;
Duverney, Oeuvres Anatomiques. Vol. i. Tab. xvi. fig. 7,
9–14. Tab. xvij.
fig. 3 sqq.
fig. 3 sqq.
rior cylindrical, apparently continuous with the epider-
mis,
B.S. Albinus, Annotat. Academ. L. vj. Tab. iij. fig.
45.
hair is composed, and which are generally from five to
ten in each.
191. The hairs are almost incorruptible, and always
anointed by an oily halitus. Of all parts they appear
anointed by an oily halitus. Of all parts they appear